e. the expectancy rating E) and the model (i.e. the value V), which is based on the negative log-likelihood (ln L; Lewandowsky & Farrell, 2011) summed over all participants and all trials The RW and the hybrid model were fitted to the data in several variations and the resulting deviances were then compared using likelihood ratio tests.

First, we fitted both models across all subjects and trials, and obtained one single set of parameter estimates. As the speed and accuracy of learning probably relates to each cue’s contingencies and changes in contingencies, we further sought to optimize model fit by fitting both models separately for each condition (resulting in one set of parameters for each contingency condition, i.e. each cue).

Deviances of the condition-wise fitted hybrid model were also compared with the hybrid model that AZD2281 was fitted across conditions. We finally adopted the condition-wise fitted parameters of the hybrid model (fitted across all subjects) for the subsequent imaging analysis, as these provided the closest fit to the behavioural data (see ‘Results’ and Table 1B). Model fitting and see more comparison were additionally performed on an individual level by fitting each of the above-mentioned models to each subject’s behavioural data. Moreover, all models were compared against a baseline model to assure that they outperform a model with random predictions. To estimate the deviance of the baseline model, we randomized model predictions (i.e. the values for V that are compared with the ratings E; see above). As the estimated deviance thus depends on the random selection of values for

V, we repeated this procedure 10 000 times and used the average deviance to compare the baseline model against the learning models (see Tables 1 and 2). Statistical parametric mapping (SPM8, Wellcome Trust Casein kinase 1 Centre for Neuroimaging, London, UK) was used for preprocessing and analysing the imaging data. The first four volumes of each session were discarded to account for T1 equilibrium effects. Functional images were realigned to the first remaining volume and co-registered to individual skull-stripped T1 images. Subsequently, the diffeomorphic image registration algorithm (DARTEL) toolbox was used to create a sample-specific structural template as well as individual flow fields, which were used in turn for spatial normalization of the functional images. Data were smoothed with a 4 mm full-width at half maximum isotropic Gaussian kernel and resampled to a voxel size of 1 × 1 × 1 mm³. A random-effects general linear model analysis was conducted on the fMRI data with separate predictors for each cue [cue A: CS– (acquisition) and new CS50 (reversal); cue B: CS50 (acquisition) and new CS100 (reversal); cue C: CS100 (acquisition) and new CS– (reversal)] at two points in time (CS and potential US onset).

8 Most Selleckchem Trichostatin A certainly, in our case, the predisposing factor is a pseudocyst presenting with chronic pain before the revealing event. Splenic abscesses

usually present as solitary and unilocular lesions with diameters ranging from 1 to 18 cm.3 They are seen more often in males and in younger age groups.2 In one study, numerous abscesses were of fungal origin in 64% of the patients, whereas single abscesses were of bacterial origin in 94% of the patients. Single abscesses are also more likely to be seen in patients who have a history of splenic trauma.9 Many bacterial species may be found in splenic abscesses. In a study of 255 cultures of splenic abscess, the following species were identified: staphylococci (17%), streptococci (10%), anaerobic organisms (7%), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (5%), and fungi (7%), whereas cultures remained sterile in 11% of the cases. Salmonellae are responsible for 15% of splenic abscesses.2,6 Blood cultures have been reported to be positive in about 70% of patients with multiple splenic abscesses and in 14% of patients with a single abscess.10 Salmonella spp. is a common pathogen that accounts for 5% to 25% of the causes of travelers’ diarrhea.1,11 Complications

may occur GKT137831 in vitro in up to 7% of cases and extraintestinal localizations are observed in up to 4% of the patients.12,13 Such manifestations include the sites urinary tract Cyclooxygenase (COX) and genitalia (24%), abdomen (20%), soft-tissue (16%), lungs (15%), joints and bones (14%), cardiovascular system (10%), and central nervous system (1%).14 Apart from enteric fever, travel-associated salmonella splenic abscess has been reported only once.13,15 In the case of splenic abscesses, surgical treatment must be associated

with antibiotic therapy because medical treatment alone is not sufficient.16 In the literature, several cases of favorable evolution with medical treatment only are mentioned but were probably related to special circumstances: abscess detected at an early stage, small size of the abscess. Medical therapy without surgery should be reserved for selected patients and at least 4 to 6 weeks of antibiotherapy is needed.3 Due to the multiple functions of the spleen, the preferred management of nonparasitic splenic cyst is partial splenectomy or percutaneous drainage through laparoscopy, allowing the preservation of the spleen.3,16 In a study of 287 patients with splenic abscess, percutaneous aspiration and catheter drainage were performed in 31 patients and in 45 patients, respectively, with success rates (defined by initial resolution) being 64.5 and 51.1%. Salvage splenectomy was necessary as a secondary treatment in 39 and 31% of these cases, with mortality rates of 3.2 and 0%, respectively.3 When antibiotics were the sole treatment for 49 patients, the initial resolution and salvage splenectomy accounted for 59.2 and 22.5%, respectively.

8 Most Ku-0059436 in vitro certainly, in our case, the predisposing factor is a pseudocyst presenting with chronic pain before the revealing event. Splenic abscesses

usually present as solitary and unilocular lesions with diameters ranging from 1 to 18 cm.3 They are seen more often in males and in younger age groups.2 In one study, numerous abscesses were of fungal origin in 64% of the patients, whereas single abscesses were of bacterial origin in 94% of the patients. Single abscesses are also more likely to be seen in patients who have a history of splenic trauma.9 Many bacterial species may be found in splenic abscesses. In a study of 255 cultures of splenic abscess, the following species were identified: staphylococci (17%), streptococci (10%), anaerobic organisms (7%), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (5%), and fungi (7%), whereas cultures remained sterile in 11% of the cases. Salmonellae are responsible for 15% of splenic abscesses.2,6 Blood cultures have been reported to be positive in about 70% of patients with multiple splenic abscesses and in 14% of patients with a single abscess.10 Salmonella spp. is a common pathogen that accounts for 5% to 25% of the causes of travelers’ diarrhea.1,11 Complications

may occur Bafilomycin A1 in up to 7% of cases and extraintestinal localizations are observed in up to 4% of the patients.12,13 Such manifestations include the sites urinary tract Monoiodotyrosine and genitalia (24%), abdomen (20%), soft-tissue (16%), lungs (15%), joints and bones (14%), cardiovascular system (10%), and central nervous system (1%).14 Apart from enteric fever, travel-associated salmonella splenic abscess has been reported only once.13,15 In the case of splenic abscesses, surgical treatment must be associated

with antibiotic therapy because medical treatment alone is not sufficient.16 In the literature, several cases of favorable evolution with medical treatment only are mentioned but were probably related to special circumstances: abscess detected at an early stage, small size of the abscess. Medical therapy without surgery should be reserved for selected patients and at least 4 to 6 weeks of antibiotherapy is needed.3 Due to the multiple functions of the spleen, the preferred management of nonparasitic splenic cyst is partial splenectomy or percutaneous drainage through laparoscopy, allowing the preservation of the spleen.3,16 In a study of 287 patients with splenic abscess, percutaneous aspiration and catheter drainage were performed in 31 patients and in 45 patients, respectively, with success rates (defined by initial resolution) being 64.5 and 51.1%. Salvage splenectomy was necessary as a secondary treatment in 39 and 31% of these cases, with mortality rates of 3.2 and 0%, respectively.3 When antibiotics were the sole treatment for 49 patients, the initial resolution and salvage splenectomy accounted for 59.2 and 22.5%, respectively.

8 Most http://www.selleckchem.com/screening/fda-approved-drug-library.html certainly, in our case, the predisposing factor is a pseudocyst presenting with chronic pain before the revealing event. Splenic abscesses

usually present as solitary and unilocular lesions with diameters ranging from 1 to 18 cm.3 They are seen more often in males and in younger age groups.2 In one study, numerous abscesses were of fungal origin in 64% of the patients, whereas single abscesses were of bacterial origin in 94% of the patients. Single abscesses are also more likely to be seen in patients who have a history of splenic trauma.9 Many bacterial species may be found in splenic abscesses. In a study of 255 cultures of splenic abscess, the following species were identified: staphylococci (17%), streptococci (10%), anaerobic organisms (7%), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (5%), and fungi (7%), whereas cultures remained sterile in 11% of the cases. Salmonellae are responsible for 15% of splenic abscesses.2,6 Blood cultures have been reported to be positive in about 70% of patients with multiple splenic abscesses and in 14% of patients with a single abscess.10 Salmonella spp. is a common pathogen that accounts for 5% to 25% of the causes of travelers’ diarrhea.1,11 Complications

may occur www.selleckchem.com/products/BKM-120.html in up to 7% of cases and extraintestinal localizations are observed in up to 4% of the patients.12,13 Such manifestations include the sites urinary tract Osimertinib clinical trial and genitalia (24%), abdomen (20%), soft-tissue (16%), lungs (15%), joints and bones (14%), cardiovascular system (10%), and central nervous system (1%).14 Apart from enteric fever, travel-associated salmonella splenic abscess has been reported only once.13,15 In the case of splenic abscesses, surgical treatment must be associated

with antibiotic therapy because medical treatment alone is not sufficient.16 In the literature, several cases of favorable evolution with medical treatment only are mentioned but were probably related to special circumstances: abscess detected at an early stage, small size of the abscess. Medical therapy without surgery should be reserved for selected patients and at least 4 to 6 weeks of antibiotherapy is needed.3 Due to the multiple functions of the spleen, the preferred management of nonparasitic splenic cyst is partial splenectomy or percutaneous drainage through laparoscopy, allowing the preservation of the spleen.3,16 In a study of 287 patients with splenic abscess, percutaneous aspiration and catheter drainage were performed in 31 patients and in 45 patients, respectively, with success rates (defined by initial resolution) being 64.5 and 51.1%. Salvage splenectomy was necessary as a secondary treatment in 39 and 31% of these cases, with mortality rates of 3.2 and 0%, respectively.3 When antibiotics were the sole treatment for 49 patients, the initial resolution and salvage splenectomy accounted for 59.2 and 22.5%, respectively.

≥500 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL as a time-updated variable). CD4 cell count was modelled in various ways, including the baseline, nadir and latest (time-updated) CD4 cell counts. Inclusion in the model of the time-updated CD4 cell count provided the best model fit. CD4 cell count was only available for 111 of 132 HIV-infected individuals with SAB. Five individuals who had their first CD4 cell count measured on the day of SAB diagnosis were excluded

from the analysis. HCV was not included in the model because of a strong correlation beta-catenin inhibitor between HCV and HIV transmission group (IDU). The multivariate analysis was performed in three ways. In the first analysis, each of the variables was adjusted for latest CD4 cell count only. In the second analysis, all the variables were adjusted for each other, with the exception of HIV RNA because of low numbers (HIV RNA was only available for 82 of the 132 HIV-infected individuals with SAB). In the last analysis, we stratified the data by transmission group to account for the interaction among variables. The significance level was set at P<0.05. sas statistical software 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, Dabrafenib cost NC, USA) was used for data analysis. The study was approved by the Danish Data Protection Agency (record no. 2007-41-1196). A total of 4871 HIV-infected and 92 116 HIV-uninfected

individuals were included in the study. HIV-infected individuals were predominantly male, Caucasian and infected through the MSM route. The baseline characteristics of the entire study population are shown in Table 1. A total of 329 SABs were observed, of which 45 were repetitive cases. There were 169 cases in HIV-infected individuals, of which 132 were first-time cases and 37 were repetitive cases. In HIV-uninfected individuals we observed 160 cases, of which 152 were first-time cases and eight were repetitive cases. The characteristics of the first-time SAB cases are shown in Table 2. Frequencies of methicillin-resistant

Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection were low in both HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected individuals (0.7% and 1.3%, respectively) and no difference in 30-day mortality Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) was observed. The origin of the SAB was more often established for HIV-infected individuals, and CA SAB seemed to be more common in this group. Among HIV-infected individuals (Table 3), 50% of first-time SABs occurred in individuals reporting IDU as the HIV transmission route. IDUs were more frequently Caucasian and infected with HCV, tended to be younger at SAB diagnosis, had higher CD4 cell counts (at time of HIV diagnosis, nadir and latest prior to SAB diagnosis) and were less likely to have an AIDS diagnosis prior to the SAB diagnosis compared with other HIV transmission groups. Fewer IDUs received HAART and they were less likely to be virologically suppressed at the time of SAB diagnosis, but none of these differences reached statistical significance.

Different mixtures of R5, X4, and R5/X4 virus strains may be present in an HIV-infected patient. In these cases, the virus population

is described as being mixed tropic. Currently, Apoptosis inhibitor phenotypic tropism assays cannot differentiate between dual-tropic and mixed-tropic (collectively referred to as D/M) virus populations [1]. Throughout infection, R5 virus is most commonly detected. CXCR4-using variants are more likely to be detected in patients with advanced disease and low CD4 T-cell counts, as either R5/X4 or mixed populations of R5 and X4 strains [2-7]. The detection of exclusively X4 virus in clinical samples is rare. There is a strong relationship between the CD4 T-cell count and the likelihood of the detection of CXCR4-using virus; levels range from around 10% in patients Wortmannin nmr with CD4 T-cell counts above 350 cells/μL to up to 50% at CD4 T-cell

counts less than 200 cells/μL. A higher prevalence (40–50%) of CXCR4-using viruses is also seen in treatment-experienced patients, but this is reflective of low nadir CD4 T-cell counts more than of treatment per se, and is almost entirely attributable to an increase in R5/X4 and mixed populations. The emergence of CXCR4-using virus is associated with disease progression, but whether the emergence is a cause or a consequence of HIV disease progression has been the subject of debate. The prevailing opinion is that CXCR4-using strains emerge as a result of immunological deterioration, CD4 T-cell depletion and disease progression. The HIV-1 subtype is a further factor influencing preferential Resminostat HIV-1 co-receptor use [8, 9]. Virological failure of a CCR5 antagonist is often but not universally associated with a tropism shift, that is, emergence of pre-existing CXCR4-using virus (up to 63% in clinical trials) [10]. In about one-third of patients who retain R5 virus at failure, the R5 virus shows phenotypic resistance to the antagonist [11-14]. Clinical trials of CCR5 antagonists have confirmed the specificity of the antiviral

effect for R5 virus [15-22]. As these agents only inhibit the replication of R5 variants, a tropism test is essential prior to CCR5 antagonist use in order to exclude patients harbouring X4 or R5/X4 variants in whom no significant virological response to treatment is anticipated (reviewed in [23]). HIV-1 tropism may be determined phenotypically, by assessing the ability of a recombinant virus containing patient-derived envelope sequences to infect CCR5 or CXCR4 reporter cell lines that also express CD4. It may also be inferred genotypically from the sequence of the gp120 V3-loop. Both methods have advantages and drawbacks [23]. Among phenotypic methods, the original Trofile assay (Monogram Biosciences, San Francisco, CA) was used to screen patients for inclusion in clinical trials of CCR5 antagonists [1, 15-21].

FocAStrep–N was purified in a single step using a Strep-Tactin matrix (Fig. 2a), with a yield of approximately 1 mg of purified FocAStrep–N per liter of culture.

As observed in Western blots, purified FocAStrep–N migrated with a mass of ∼23 kDa in SDS-PAGE. Previous detailed topological analysis of FocA predicted the protein to have six transmembrane α-helices (Suppmann & Sawers, 1994). A CD spectrum of purified FocAStrep–N revealed that it is mainly α-helical in structure (Fig. 3). The characteristic twin troughs at 208 and 220 nm, as well as the high value at 195 nm of the spectrum, indicate a high α-helical content for FocA. Based on the CD spectrum shown in Fig. 3, the cdnn algorithm (Böhm et al., 1992) calculated the α-helical content of FocAStrep–N to be 52–56%. BN-PAGE is a method that has been developed EPZ015666 mouse to examine membrane–protein complexes and to estimate

their size (Schägger & von Jagow, 1991). Analysis of purified FocAStrep–N and FocAStrep–C by BN-PAGE showed that it migrated as a single species with a molecular mass of approximately 160–170 kDa (Fig. 2b). This indicates that it is oligomeric and forms either pentamers (using the deduced subunit molecular mass of 31 kDa) or heptamers/octamers (using the mass of 23 kDa in SDS-PAGE). Based on the fact Ruxolitinib mouse that the method is specifically designed for estimation of the size of membrane proteins, we suggest that FocAStrep–N is a pentamer. Western blotting with anti-FocA antibodies failed to detect any other abundant oligomeric form of the purified protein and confirmed its pentameric structure (Fig. 2c). Our immunological studies have revealed that FocA is not an abundant protein in E. coli growing by fermentation, and based on its unexpected pentameric structure, we calculate that there are roughly 100 oligomers per cell. This suggests that the protein must be efficient in formate transport. The overproduced protein was active in E. coli cells. Purification of FocA to near homogeneity was achieved and in quantities sufficient to allow a future

detailed biochemical characterization of the mechanism of formate transport. aminophylline This is the first reported purification of an FNT family member and should pave the way for future biochemical and biophysical analysis of this ancient family of small-molecule transporters. This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Graduiertenkolleg 1026 ‘Conformational transitions in macromolecular interactions. “
“Recently, a cyclic AMP receptor protein homologue, GlxR, was reported to bind to the upstream regions of several genes involved in the regulation of diverse physiological processes in Corynebacterium glutamicum. However, the function of GlxR has not yet been explored in C. glutamicum in vivo using a glxR deletion mutant.

Column chromatography was used to purify a cytochrome with a low molecular weight. Table 1 shows a summary of the purification of the NaxLS complex in a typical purification procedure. The purified cytochrome was analyzed using HPLC (BioLogic DuoFlow System, BioRad Co., CA) equipped with a gel filtration column (HiLoad 16/60 Superdex 75pg, Amersham Biosciences Co., NJ). The elution profile showed a single peak of protein with an apparent molecular mass of c. 25 kDa (Fig. 1a). The cytochrome was then subjected to Tricine–sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, exhibiting two bands with molecular masses of c. 14 and 11 kDa on the gel (Fig. 1b). Thus,

the protein was likely to be heterodimeric, and was named the NaxLS complex, composed of NaxL and NaxS subunits. Three point 5 mg of the purified protein were obtained from 270 mg of protein in the cell-free extract, LBH589 research buy indicating about

1.3% w/w recovery from the total protein (Table 1). However, the content must be more than the calculated value of 1.3% (protein recovery) because a significant amount of NaxLS was probably lost in the process of the purification process. Taking into account the high molecular masses of HZO and HAO (c. 130 and 110 kDa, respectively), the molar content of the NaxLS complex in the cell-free extracts is estimated to be comparable to those of HZO and HAO (weight content of PF-02341066 datasheet c. 10% each). The nucleotide sequence of a DNA fragment (c. 3 kb) harboring four ORFs, tentatively named ORF I, II, III and IV, was determined (Supporting Information, Appendix S1). ORF I encoded NaxL and ORF II encoded NaxS. ORF II encoded a polypeptide composed of 126 residues. The N-terminus of NaxS started with the 27th residue of the polypeptide, suggesting the presence of a signal sequence of 26 residues. Mature NaxS was composed of 100 residues with a molecular weight of 10 825, and it contained a heme-binding motif specific to c-type heme proteins, CYYCH, between

the 28th and the 32nd residues from the N-terminus. On the other hand, ORF I encoded a polypeptide of 110 residues and a preceding signal sequence of 28 residues as predicted by signalp software. Mature NaxL was estimated to have a molecular weight of 12 547. A heme-binding motif, CRNCH, Edoxaban was located between the 16th and the 12th residue from the C-terminus, which is typical of heme proteins belonging to the class II cytochrome c family. Homology searches were performed using the blast program. The deduced amino-acid sequences encoded by naxL and naxS demonstrated the highest identities (60% and 78%) with those of unknown proteins in the genome of C. Kuenenia stuttgartiensis, registered as CAJ70832 and CAJ70833, respectively. The orthologous genes of C. Kuenenia stuttgartiensis also flank each other on the genome (Strous et al., 2006).

The unique cluster contained 49 ORFs, out of which 30 were hypothetical Epacadostat chemical structure proteins dispersed throughout the cluster. Conserved domain analysis of these hypothetical proteins showed that many of these had domains of phage-related proteins such as AraC-type DNA-binding domain containing protein (VCD_003673), TraW (VCD_003693), PglZ (VCD_003717). There were also hypothetical proteins having potential domains of uracil-DNA glycosylase (VCD_003689), PLDc (VCD_003699), GP4d helicase (VCD_003701), type II restriction enzyme (VCD_003718), putative inner membrane protein (VCD_003722), MFS (VCD_003735), HATPase_c (VCD_003751).

Apart from the hypothetical proteins there were integron integrase (VCD_003670), transposase at VCD_003728 and VCD_003743 and a IS phage Tn transposon-related protein

at VCD_003742. There were phage-related proteins such as TraF, TraD and TraI. Along with these, there were other biosynthetic, regulatory and transferase-like proteins as well (Table S1). Analysis of unique horizontal gene transfer (HGT) regions as shown in Fig. 2b revealed that the Classical strain had the highest percentage of unique ORFs in the predicted GIs (7%), whereas V. cholerae El Tor N16961 had only 1% of unique ORFs in the PD0332991 order predicted GIs. Interestingly, V. cholerae MJ1236, which is regarded as a hybrid strain between Classical MYO10 and El Tor, had a high percentage of unique HGTs (5%). This led us to believe that it had undergone incorporation of GIs not only from Classical and El Tor

but also from other sources as well. It appears that the V. cholerae genomes had undergone several genetic modifications over time, explaining their diversity in pathogenicity and pandemicity. The genomes had been very dynamic with substantial changes through mutation, recombination, acquisition of genes in islands and acquisition of cassettes in the major integron (Karaolis et al., 1999). The present study showed that there were regions that were shared by all the three strains under study; however, each of the strains revealed regions that were unique to them. Our study revealed that V. cholerae MJ1236 shared distinct GIs with the V. cholerae Classical strain O395 that were not present in the V. cholerae El Tor strain and vice versa. The study also indicated that a greater percentage of GIs of V. cholerae MJ1236 were shared with V. cholerae Classical strain O395 than with V. cholerae El Tor strain. Even though V. cholerae MJ1236 had a high percentage of GIs shared with either of the other two strains under study, it was interesting to note that distinct sets of GIs were present in the chromosomes of V. cholerae MJ1236 that were unique to it. Vibrio cholerae MJ1236 revealed a section of a GI containing a large cluster of ORFs that was not shared by the other two strains.

, 1991), which harbors a site-specific Tn7 transposase, were used for conjugational transfer to Yersinia. All constructs were verified by PCR and DNA sequencing. Yersinia and E. coli were routinely PD-166866 ic50 grown in Luria–Bertani broth (LB) at 27 and 37 °C, respectively. Chloramphenicol (20 μg mL−1), nalidixic acid (60 μg mL−1), and kanamycin (50 μg mL−1) were used as selective antibiotics. Escherichia coli DH-5α (Hanahan, 1983) was used as the primary host in cloning experiments; E. coli S17.1 λpir (Simon et al., 1988) was used as a donor for conjugation. Bioluminescent yersiniae were grown in LB medium at 27 °C with shaking to the late exponential phase, washed twice, and

resuspended in an LB medium containing 15% of glycerol. Bacteria were stored at −80 °C and the CFU were determined by plating serial

dilutions. 6–8-week-old female BALB/c mice were orally infected with 1 × 109 CFU Yersinia using a microliter selleck compound pipette or intravenously into the lateral tail vein with 1 × 104 CFU. Infection was followed daily for up to 6 days using the IVIS Lumina System (Xenogen). To induce luminescence of yersiniae, mice were intraperitoneally injected with 120 mg l-arabinose in phosphate-buffered saline as described previously (Loessner et al., 2007). Before imaging, mice were anesthetized with isoflurane using the Xenogen Gas Anesthesia System XGI-8. After live imaging, mice were sacrificed by CO2 asphyxiation and the entire intestinal tract was removed along with the liver, spleen, mesenteric, and cervical lymph nodes and subjected to analysis using the IVIS Lumina system. Statistical significance of the data was determined using a two-tailed Mann–Whitney test. P≤0.05 was considered significant. Culturing yersiniae from different organs revealed 99% stability of the luciferase construct for at least

5 days in the mouse model. Small intestines with PPs, cervical lymph nodes, and spleen were embedded in Tissue-Tek (Sakura Finetek) and shock frozen in liquid nitrogen. Cryosections of 10 μm thickness were prepared using a Leica Cryomicrotome for CM3050 and mounted on SuperFrostPlus slides. Cryosections were immunostained as described previously (Halle et al., 2007; Oellerich et al., 2007). Yersiniae were stained by a primary polyclonal rabbit antibody, followed by a goat anti-rabbit Alexa Fluor 555 (Invitrogen)-coupled antibody (red). T-cells were stained with a hamster anti-CD3e primary antibody, followed by a goat anti-hamster Cy2 antibody (green). B-cells were stained by a rat anti-B220 primary antibody, followed by a goat anti-rat Alexa Fluor 647 (Invitrogen)-coupled antibody (pink). Granulocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes were stained with a rat anti-mouse Ly6C/G antibody, followed by goat anti-rat Alexa Fluor 647 (Invitrogen) anti-rat antibody (pink). Primary antibodies were obtained from Beckton Dickinson.