The value of hERG 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) for predi

The value of hERG 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) for predicting TQT results was assessed by Gintant (2011): using a safety selleck margin value of 45 (free plasma concentration should be 45 times smaller than IC50) was 64% sensitive and 88% specific for TQT prolongation of ≥ 5 ms. It has been suggested that multiple-ion-channel effects should be considered to provide a more accurate assessment of pro-arrhythmic risk (Kramer et al., 2013 and Mirams et al., 2011), and that simulations based on mathematical models for the electrophysiology of cardiac myocytes could be used to integrate information on how a compound affects different ion channels (Fletcher et al., 2011,

Gintant, 2012, Mirams et al., 2012 and Mirams and Noble, 2011). A recent Comprehensive in-vitro Pro-arrhythmia Assay (CiPA) initiative led by the US Food & Drug Administration, the Cardiac Safety Research Consortium (www.cardiac-safety.org), the Health and Environmental Sciences Institute (www.hesiglobal.org), and the Safety Pharmacology Society (http://safetypharmacology.org) aims to use this type of approach to provide accurate mechanistic predictions of pro-arrhythmic

risk (Sager, Gintant, Turner, Pettit, & Stockbridge, Thiazovivin 2014). In this study we aim to evaluate how well action potential simulations, based upon cardiac ion channel screening data, could predict the result of the TQT study. In doing so, we provide a feasibility study for the in-silico aspects of the CiPA initiative, and highlight some issues that are going to be important for its success. An overview of the procedure used in this study is shown in Fig. 1, and we outline the steps in the sections below. A methods description Tryptophan synthase for the IonWorks Quattro screening performed at AstraZeneca (AZ) on all five channels, for 34 compounds, can be found in Elkins et al. (2013) and

Supplementary Material S1.2.1. We refer to this dataset as the Quattro (Q) dataset. A methods description for a second screening performed at GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) using IonWorks Barracuda for HERG and CaV1.2 (together with a second Quattro screen for NaV1.5 and KCNQ1) for 26 compounds can be found in Supplementary Material S1.2.2; this is referred to as the Barracuda & second Quattro (B&Q2) dataset. All of the methods descriptions have also been entered into the Minimum Information about a Cardiac Electrophysiology Experiment database (MICEE: www.micee.org, Quinn et al. (2011)). Compound induced current inhibition is characterised using concentration–effect curves. These curves describe how an ‘effect’ or ‘response’ R depends on a ‘dose’ or compound ‘concentration’ [C]. In this case, the peak ionic current following a voltage step is recorded repeatedly, and the proportion of peak current that remains after addition of a certain concentration (or dose) of a compound is the recorded effect (or response).

3 (95% CI 1 1 to 4 9) times that of males, while the odds of them

3 (95% CI 1.1 to 4.9) times that of males, while the odds of them reporting posterior upper leg pain were 2.7 (95% CI 1.1 to 6.2) times that of males. The odds of females reporting pain were not more than males at the other five sites. The odds of females having 12-month ankle pain were 1.7 (95% CI 1.0 to 3.1) times that of males (Table 2). The odds of them reporting 12-month foot pain

were see more 2.0 (95% CI 1.0 to 4.1) times that of males, while the odds of them reporting posterior upper leg pain were 2.1 (95% CI 1.0 to 4.4) times that of males. The odds of females reporting pain at 12 months were not more than males at the other five sites. The odds of those 50 years or older reporting current lower limb pain were 4.1 (95% CI 2.8 to 6.1) times that of their younger counterparts (Table 3). The odds of those 50 years or older reporting current pain were more than the younger participants for all sites

except the foot and the anterior upper leg. In particular, the odds of participants 50 years or older reporting current knee pain were 3.4 (95% CI 2.2 to 5.2) times, and current posterior leg pain were 3.2 (95% CI 1.6 to 6.2) times that of the younger participants. The odds of those 50 years or older reporting 12-month lower limb pain were 4.0 (95% CI 2.7 to 6.0) times that of their younger counterparts (Table 3). The odds of those 50 years Epigenetics inhibitor or older reporting 12-month pain were more than the younger participants for all sites except the foot and the anterior upper leg. In particular, the odds of participants 50 years or older reporting 12-month knee pain were 3.0 (95% CI 2.0 to 4.5) times that of the younger participants. The observation walks revealed a homogenous population living an extremely arduous lifestyle. Adults were observed undertaking activities that involve bending of the hips, knees, and

ankles, often in a weighted position. Sustained squatting was observed during activities such as toileting, clothes washing and socialising (Figure 1). We noted both men and women lifting and carrying heavy loads (eg, rocks, crops, and children), often over long distances and up and down steep terrain. Footwear was commonly poor in quality and often consisted of rubber boots or canvas shoes with little cushioning Astemizole or arch support. We saw adults and children with moderate to severe bowing of the legs. We did not observe any obesity in the 19 villages visited. The point prevalence of musculoskeletal lower limb pain in this rural Tibetan population was 40% (95% CI 34 to 46), which is higher than that in some low-income countries (Minh Hoa et al 2003, Veerapen et al 2007, Zeng et al 2005). The knee was by far the most common site of pain, followed by the ankle and the hip. Furthermore, the prevalence of current knee pain in those over 50 years was 41% (95% CI 30 to 52) even though we observed no obesity in this population.

Economic analyses conducted in other countries can be taken into

Economic analyses conducted in other countries can be taken into account but are not usually considered sufficient evidence upon which to base a decision. Economic studies undertaken by the pharmaceutical industry can also be taken into consideration but they are not considered sufficient. The current approach is to compare economic models during the period prior see more to reaching

a decision. Once validated by the Committee for Transmissible Diseases (CSMT), the recommendations are published on the HCSP website and sent to the Minister of Health, who ultimately decides whether the CTV recommendations will be incorporated into the new vaccination schedule (Fig. 1). The vaccination schedules are updated annually and published in the official bulletin of the Ministry of Health. They are then published in the special annual issue of the Bulletin Épidémiologique Hebdomadaire (BEH; a weekly epidemiological bulletin published by INVS), the bulletin of the Conseil National de l’Ordre des Médecins (CNOM; the main professional organization for physicians), the bulletin of the Comité d’Éducation Sanitaire et Sociale de la Pharmacie Française (the Permanent Committee of the National Selleckchem INCB024360 Order of Pharmacists), the Vidal (French dictionary

of pharmaceuticals), and other medical media, as well as in children’s health textbooks. When a vaccine has been recommended by CTV, the Commission for Transparency, which is a part of HAS, evaluates the impact of the administration of this vaccine on public health services (e.g., increase in rendered medical services). This evaluation will be used to determine the level of reimbursement

(usually 65%) and will serve as a basis for negotiation of the vaccine’s price between the vaccine manufacturer and the CEPS (Comité Economique des Produits de Santé or Health Products Evaluation Committee). Then the government will decide whether or not the new recommendation no will be integrated into the French immunization schedule. The French government is not obliged to implement the CTV recommendations, although it has previously implemented most of them. Currently, vaccines recommended for the general population are subject to reimbursement. Some vaccines recommended for targeted use are not subject to reimbursement (e.g., hepatitis A vaccine for travellers or chickenpox vaccine for adolescents). The Ministry of Finance also plays a role in the decision making but the extent of its influence is unclear to many. The Caisse Nationale d’Assurance Maladie (CNAM), or the National Health Insurance Fund, is a public-sector organization and is represented by ex-officio members of the CTV. The CNAM is a major player since it provides reimbursements for vaccines (seasonal flu vaccines, as well as vaccines against measles, mumps and rubella) but it does not interfere with the decision making process.

The current analysis focuses on the differences in impact across

The current analysis focuses on the differences in impact across socio-economic and geographic groups, however it does not include differences in the costs of reaching different populations or differences in the economic consequences of severe illness, such as medical costs. It is likely that it costs more to reach higher risk children and more to increase coverage among marginalized populations. In particular, there is little available information on the incremental costs of increasing coverage for economically or geographically marginalized children. Future studies should examine the costs of alternative strategies and their resulting cost-effectiveness.

The PI3K Inhibitor Library screening current model assumes equal vaccine efficacy across wealth quintiles and states within a given country. Clinical trials have demonstrated different levels of efficacy in countries with different selleck compound income and mortality levels [21] and [23]. Among other factors, these national level differences may be explained by

variability in exposure to other environmental enteric pathogens [21]. Given the substantial within-country disparities in sanitation and water access by region and wealth quintile, it is possible that there would also be disparities in vaccine efficacy at the country level as well, resulting in an underestimation of the actual inequities. The current analysis assumed that vaccination timing is the same across all wealth quintiles and regions, however this is likely not the case. Patel et al. demonstrated substantial

delays in immunizations in 43 low-income countries [25]. It is quite possible that delays are greater among children in the poorer quintiles. Delays could lead to missing opportunities for preventing cases, and given the current SAGE recommendations, could result in more poor children not receiving the vaccine due to the age restrictions. In addition, Atherly et al. [5] demonstrated that indirect protection through herd immunity might increase the cost-effectiveness of vaccination and reduce the effects of delays or disparities in coverage. If herd immunity occurs it could lead to high of rates of coverage among better off children providing protection to poor children with lower rates of Carnitine dehydrogenase coverage, thus reducing the disparity in benefit. Although the current analysis did not model the effect of herd mortality or indirect protection, it suggests that their potential impact is likely to depend on the degree of social and geographic mixing associated with the disparities in coverage. If economic and social disparities in coverage are associated (as in the case of India), then indirect protection may be diminished. Even within states or communities, spatial clustering of non-vaccinated children may lead to reductions in indirect protection with poorer unvaccinated children being less likely to be around vaccinated children and thus less likely to receive that indirect protection.

Pyrogenicity is one of the main issues in the development of nove

Pyrogenicity is one of the main issues in the development of novel adjuvants for vaccine even Anti-diabetic Compound Library purchase with good adjuvanticity. Therefore,

minimizing toxicity remains one of the major challenges in adjuvant research [22]. Treanor et al. reported that VAX125, a recombinant HA influenza-flagellin fusion vaccine, showed high immunogenicity in clinical study [23], but in some cases, febrile symptoms were observed in the first 24 h following vaccination. It was suggested that the pyrogenic reaction was associated with systemic proinflammatory cytokine responses. sHZ induces the production of IL-1β by activating NALP3 inflammasome pathway in macrophages [24] and [25]. However, in the present study, sHZ did not cause pyrogenic reaction after the first immunization. To find insights into why sHZ did not show pyrogenicity, the activity of sHZ to induce the NALP3 inflammasome was examined, and the results revealed that a relatively high

concentration (≥300 μg/ml) of sHZ was required to induce IL-1β production in macrophages (Supplemental Fig. 1). Dostert et al. also demonstrated that 150 μg/ml sHZ could induce inflammasome in bone marrow-derived macrophages [25]. These results suggested that the activation of NALP3-inflammasome caused by sHZ was very low and did not act as a trigger to cause a pyrogenic reaction in ferrets. Rapid systemic distribution of adjuvant is also understood to enhance the risk of causing a pyrogenic reaction. Sauder et al. reported that R848, which is known as an imidazoquinoline compound and TLR7/8 agonist, caused a pyrogenic

reaction correlated with the induction of proinflammatory selleck compound cytokine responses in healthy adults [10]. This strong response was caused by rapid systemic distribution of R848 after administration [10]. 3M-052 is a lipid-modified too imidazoquinoline compound derived from R848, bearing a C18 lipid moiety, for sustained release and incorporation into a bilayer liposome [26]. 3M-052 incorporated into liposome composed of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (3M-052/PC) was shown to avoid the induction of systemic proinflammatory cytokine responses [26]. In addition, the adjuvanticity of 3M-052/PC was higher than that of R848. Therefore, persistent immunostimulation at the injected site with adjuvant is thought to contribute to its potent adjuvanticity [26]. sHZ, synthesized by an acidic method, formed insoluble particles approximately 1–2 μm in size. On day 35 after the first immunization, a small amount of sHZ was observed at the immunized site (data not shown), suggesting that the distribution of sHZ was not rapid or was very limited in ferrets. Thus, slow systemic distribution of sHZ might contribute to prevent a pyrogenic reaction and maintain potent adjuvanticity after immunization. The size of particle adjuvant is considered to affect the particulate-induced immune responses such as the efficient activation of dendritic cells or adjuvant uptake of macrophages [27].

This pathogenesis of liver damage arises so many complications li

This pathogenesis of liver damage arises so many complications like destruction of structures of the endoplasmic reticulum and other membrane, loss of metabolic enzyme activation, reduction of protein synthesis. The loss of glucose-6-phosphatase activation, decreasing level of phospholipids, increasing triglyceride levels, inhibition of calcium pumps of microsomes, covalent binding of macromolecules and disruption of metabolic mechanisms in mitochondria thus leading to necrosis of liver.22 and 23 The acute toxicity study expressed the absence of lethality among the tested BIBF-1120 animals upon administration of the ethanolic extract both plant

as single dose (200 mg/kg). There were no any signs and symptoms of any behavioral changes observed

except an increase in urination which decided the safe use of the plant extract. When rats were treated with CCl4 it induces hepatotoxicity by metabolic activation, therefore, it selectively causes toxicity in liver cells maintaining semi-normal metabolic function. The liver specific enzymes are the having very sensitive and reliable indices for the necessary hepatotoxic as well as hepatoprotective or curative effects of various compounds. The rise in serum levels of SGOT and SGPT attributed to the damaged structural integrity of the liver, because they are cytoplasmic in location and released into circulation after cellular damages.24 The amino transferases contribute a group of enzyme that catalyse the interconversion of amino acids and α-keto acids by the below transfer amino groups. Both the enzyme SGOT and SGPT levels increase with the CCl4 treatment and after treated with A. paniculata learn more and S. chirayita plant ethanol extract the elevated level were altered which indicates the protective action of plant extract. The enzyme alkaline phosphate (ALP) reaches the liver mainly from the bone. ALP is a membrane bound glycoprotein enzyme

with high concentration in sinusoid and endothelium. It is excreted into the bile; on treatment with CCl4, elevation of serum ALP level due to hepatobiliary disorder. The ALP related to the functioning of hepatocytes and increase in its activity is due to the increased synthesis in presence of biliary pressure. In the present study the treatment with ethanol extract reduce the level of ALP in treated animals. Thus on treatment with extract, probably it stabilizes the hepatic plasma membrane, which is evident of recovery ( Table 1). 25 Serum bilirubin levels and γ-glutamate transpeptidase (GGTP) levels also have specific marker of functional status of hepatic cell. The CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity increases the serum enzyme γ-glutamate transpeptidase (GGTPT) and bilirubin levels.26 Treatment with both A. paniculata and S. chirayita ethanol extract reduces the level, which indicates preservation of structural and functional integrity of the hepatocellular membrane in rats.

These adults may otherwise have poor access to medical care [39]

These adults may otherwise have poor access to medical care [39]. Another study illustrated that a cocooning initiative in a predominantly Hispanic, medically underserved, uninsured population at a Houston hospital successfully administered Tdap vaccinations to 75% of postpartum women [40]. These studies also suggest that Labor and Delivery staff are essential in influencing close contacts of infants and promoting

Tdap vaccinations. If no on-site pharmacy existed for close contacts of neonates, numerous barriers to receiving the Tdap vaccine would exist, such as seeking vaccine at a later date at another location. The collaborative program between Walgreens and the Prentice Women’s Hospital provides immediate access to Tdap vaccinations for close contacts of neonates, who are in critical need http://www.selleckchem.com/products/gdc-0068.html of the immunization in order to protect their newborns from a deadly pertussis infection. A major limitation of this study is the assumption that all Tdap doses administered that were not coded as booster vaccinations were administered for cocooning. It is probable that some doses of Tdap were for tetanus prophylaxis administered INCB018424 research buy for wound care management. Because each delivering family has a different number of eligible close contacts, an exact vaccination rate in close contacts was not able to be calculated. The mean number of Tdap vaccinations administered per live births was calculated in order to

estimate the coverage level among close contacts, although this metric does not ascertain how many close contacts exist for each live birth. In addition, follow-up was not ascertained. Unless a family member received their vaccination at the Prentice Women’s Hospital pharmacy, we did not Bumetanide attribute a program effect to any subsequent Tdap vaccination they may have received. While the program was promoted throughout the hospital, we could not measure whether some staff promoted the program more effectively than others. Even though there was no formal intervention program for Tdap vaccination at the comparison pharmacies (four comparison hospital-campus and

44 community pharmacies), there may have been informal counseling of close contacts of neonates at these locations, thus influencing Tdap vaccination rates. Tdap vaccination rates increased among close contacts of neonates after implementation of the pilot program (educational collaboration of pharmacy and delivery unit), thus implementing the “cocoon strategy” as outlined by the Global Pertussis Initiative of 2001. Increasing uptake of Tdap vaccination may help minimize health complications in neonates and their close contacts, thus reducing direct and indirect costs caused by pertussis disease. Implementation of the program also provided an opportunity for community pharmacists to collaborate and establish rapport with health system employees and physicians.

altilis, 23 and A communis collected from Indonesia 24 The comp

altilis, 23 and A. communis collected from Indonesia. 24 The compound

total synthesis has also been reported. 25 The compound, 1 was shown to be a potent inhibitor of cathepsin K 25 at an IC50 value of 170 nM. The dendrite elongation inhibition activity of the crude extract, fractions and isolated compound were evaluated by cell culture method by visual observation, estimating the length of dendrites.1 The assay method is most precise and reliable. The melanocyte cells, B16F10 were used for the present study. The cells were cultured in DMEM in the presence of 5% carbon dioxide, 10% serum, pencillin (100 μg/ml), streptomycin (50 μg/ml), amphotericin B (2.5 μg/ml). 1 × 105 cells were seeded in 60 mm cell learn more culture dish and were incubated with and without the test material for 24 h. After 24 h PI3K inhibitor drugs incubation, the cells were examined under an inverted microscope against negative control. The dendrite length was measured and calculated the % inhibition of the cell length (Table 1). The ethyl acetate

fraction and crude methanol extract were shown good dendrite elongation inhibition at 50 μg/ml and isolated compound was showed good activity at same concentration. The present study on the leaves of A. altilis resulted in the isolation of one known compound, 1 ( Fig. 1). Its structure has been identified on the basis of spectroscopic data and comparison with the literature data. The crude methanolic Cell press extract, its fractions and isolated compound were studied for dendrite elongation property and the compound has shown good dendrite elongation inhibition. All authors have none to declare. The authors are thankful to Mr.C.K. Ranganathan, CMD of CavinKare Pvt. Ltd., Chennai for his constant encouragement and providing necessary facilities. “
“Duloxetine is itself a moderate inhibitor of CYP2D6 and therefore may interact with drugs that are extensively metabolized by CYP2D6.

This may lead to clinically significant increases in plasma levels of CYP2D6 substrates that have a narrow therapeutic index (such as Metoprolol, perhexiline, phenothiazines, or flecainide). CYP2D6 is responsible for the metabolism of drugs commonly used to treat various medical conditions; some examples include anti-estrogen, Tamoxifen,1 atypical opioid tramadol,2 anti-arrhythmic amiodarone3 and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib.4 It is important, therefore, that physicians are aware of the potential for clinically relevant interactions when prescribing antidepressants. Since diabetic patients are vulnerable to diabetic complications like diabetic cardiovascular disorders and diabetic neuropathy, it is very likely that Duloxetine and Metoprolol are concomitantly administered for diabetic neuropathic pain and diabetic cardiovascular disorders respectively.

It is also likely that the overall incidence rates in our current

It is also likely that the overall incidence rates in our current study have been inflated by the increased numbers of influenza admissions during the A(H1N1)pdm09 pandemic period during 2009/10. Our current rates are also higher than those of another recent Hong Kong study [7], but lower than those of an earlier report by the same group (Table 4) [3]. However, the burden of disease alters in relation to both the vaccine coverage in these children and the protection I-BET151 clinical trial elicited by

the vaccines that covered the circulating virus strain types of the respective seasons. We were unable to differentiate between cases infected with vaccine-covered or non-vaccine-covered strains as not all patients had their virus

isolates characterised. However, based on the data provided by the National Influenza Reference Laboratory (personal communications), the trivalent vaccine strains matched with our circulating strains in 2005 and 2010; and incomplete match occurred with HCS assay influenza A H3 strains for 2006 and 2011. For 2007 and 2009, the influenza A H1N1 strains were not matched while influenza B strains were not matched in 2008. However, data suggested the uptake rate among infants 6–23 months was low at 8.5% during the 2005/6 flu season [8], but the introduction of governmental subsidies to influenza vaccination for aged 6–59 months since 2008 may have improved vaccine uptake. Pregnant women are a high risk group that can benefit from seasonal influenza vaccination and recent studies have suggested that their infants will

also enjoy some degree of protection [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15] and [16]. The vaccination uptake rate among pregnant women in Hong Kong is low in general, and ranged between 1.7 and 4.9% from various studies reported during this period [17], [18] and [19]. Should a vaccination programme targeting pregnant women also reduce the high influenza incidence of hospitalisation the in infants aged 2 months to below 6 months, it is likely that vaccine uptake would increase and cost-effectiveness of the programme would be enhanced. In contrast to high influenza hospitalisation rate in infants aged 2 months to below 6 months was the low rate in infants below two months of age (627 per 100,000). This low rate was despite the high absolute numbers of infants admitted during the first two months of life (Table 1). A US study has shown that infants below 3 months of age are more likely to present with fever alone than children aged 3 months to below 24 months of age, and although they generally do well and have a shorter duration of hospital stay, they are more likely to be admitted [20]. This analysis shows the potential of combining laboratory surveillance and passive discharge diagnosis surveillance to monitor disease burden of vaccine-preventable pathogens [1] and [2].

Bacteria were collected by centrifugation, re-suspended in PBS an

Bacteria were collected by centrifugation, re-suspended in PBS and diluted in tissue-culture medium to the required concentration. Bacteria were added to host cells and incubated at 37 °C 5% CO2 for 2 h. The monolayer was washed twice

in pre-warmed PBS and medium containing 50 μg/ml gentamicin was added to kill extracellular bacteria. Following incubation for 1 h host cells were washed twice with PBS and medium containing 10 μg/ml gentamicin was added for the remainder of the experiment. Intracellular bacteria were enumerated by serial dilution and plating on LB agar following lysis of host this website cells with 0.5% Triton 100×. Following the manufacturer’s instructions, the Cytotox96 assay kit (Promega, Southampton, UK) was used to determine the relative viability of host cells after infection. Statistical analysis was performed using Student’s t-test or one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni correction. P ≤ 0.05 was considered

significant. Deletion mutants were generated in SL1344 that lacked the entire atp operon or the F0 or F1 components only. When grown in LB broth the various atp mutants all had similar generation times in comparison with SL1344. These were 29.72 (±0.78) min for SL1344, 32.22 (±1.90) min for SL1344 F0, 33.12 (±1.06) min for SL1344 F1 and 29.24 (±0.85) min for SL1344 atp (all mean ± SEM from 3 replicates). However, final viable bacterial counts of overnight cultures were consistently lower in the various atp mutants compared to SL1344. The viable counts in 24 hr cultures were Selleckchem STI571 log10 9.69 CFU (±0.08) for SL1344, log10 9.19 CFU (±0.04) for SL1344 F0, log10 9.21 CFU (±0.16) for SL1344 F1 and log10 9.29 CFU (±0.09) for SL1344 atp (all mean ± SEM from 3 replicates), although these differences were only statistically significant between SL1344 and SL1344 F0. As seen with mutations in the atp operon in E. coli [27], Bacillus subtilis [28] and S. Typhimurium [29] all our atp mutants were unable to utilise succinate as a sole carbon or energy source. The three atp mutants showed no growth after 24 or 48 h, as measured by OD595. The atp mutants had OD595 readings of 0.001

(±0.001) for SL1344 atp, 0.0015 (±0.0005) for SL1344 F0 and 0.0015 (±0.0005) Adenylyl cyclase for SL1344 F1 at 48hrs, whereas SL1344 showed visible growth at both 24 and 48 h, with OD595 readings of 0.0335 (±0.01) and 0.374 (±0.07) respectively (all mean ± SEM from 3 replicates). Previous studies have shown that individual gene deletions or transposon insertions in the atp operon attenuate S. Typhimurium in both mice and chickens [23], [29] and [30] but attenuation following deletion of the whole operon or individual subunits has not been tested. To assess the level of attenuation caused by the deletion of the F0 or F1 subunits, or the entire atp operon, BALB/c mice were infected intravenously with 105 CFU of SL1344, SL1344 F0, SL1344 F1 or SL1344 atp. Bacterial loads in the spleens and livers were enumerated at the time points shown ( Fig. 1).