Soo Hee Lee, Seong-Chun Kwon, Seong-Ho Ok, Jeong-Min Hong, Ji-Yoon Kim, Seung Hyun Ahn, Sung Il Bae, Yunsik Shin, Ju-Tae Sohn
Abstract
The goals of this study were to examine the cellular signaling pathways associated with the phosphorylation of caldesmon, the phosphorylation-dependent inhibitory protein of myosin phosphatase (CPI-17), and the 20-kDa regulatory light chain of myosin (MLC20) induced by levobupivacaine in isolated rat aortas. The effects of genistein, tyrphostin 23, GF109203X, PD98059, Y-27632, 1-butanol, and ML-7 HCl on levobupivacaine-induced contraction were assessed. The effect of genistein on the simultaneous calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine was examined. The effects of GF109203X, genistein, PD98059 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) siRNA on levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation were investigated. The effect of genistein on the ERK and tyrosine phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine was examined. The effect of GF109203X, PD98059, Y-27632, SP600125, and ML-7 HCl on the levobupivacaine-induced phosphorylation of CPI-17 and MLC20 were investigated. Genistein, tyrphostin 23, GF109203X, PD98059, Y-27632, ML-7 HCl, and 1-butanol attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction. Genistein caused a right downward shift of the calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine. Genistein attenuated levobupivacaine-induced phosphorylation of protein tyrosine, ERK and caldesmon. PD98059 , ERK siRNA and GF109203X attenuated levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation. GF109203X, Y-27632, SP600125, ML-7 HCl and PD98059 attenuated CPI-17 phosphorylation and MLC20 phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine. These results suggest that levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation contributing to levobupivacaine-induced contraction is mediated by a pathway involving ERK, which is activated by tyrosine kinase or protein kinase C (PKC). The phosphorylation of CPI-17 and MLC20 induced by levobupivacaine is mediated by cellular signaling pathways involving PKC, Rho-kinase, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase or PKC, Rho-kinase, ERK, and myosin light chain kinase.
Keywords: levobupivacaine, caldesmon, tyrosine kinase, CPI-17, MLC20 , contraction
1.Introduction
Because of the relative low cardiotoxicity, levobupivacaine is widely used over bupivacaine for analgesia (Casati and Putzu, 2005). Among aminoamide local anesthetics, levobupivacaine produces the most potent vasoconstriction (Shim et al., 2012; Sung et al., 2012). An in vivo study has shown that levobupivacaine causes less vasodilation than bupivacaine (Newton et al., 2005). Epinephrine is used to prolong the analgesia provided by local anesthetics by inhibiting their uptake from the systemic circulation via the strong vasoconstriction of blood vessels contributing to the perineural blood supply. In addition, the lowest concentration of bupivacaine (0.25%) after topical application of bupivacaine (0.25 to 0.75%) strongly reduces rat sciatic nerve blood flow (Partridge, 1991). Thus, this strong vasoconstriction induced by levobupivacaine seems to contribute to the prolonged analgesia due to decreased systemic uptake of levobupivacaine. Vasoconstriction evoked by levobupivacaine involves calcium sensitization- mediated contraction, which is mediated by a cellular signal pathway involving protein kinase C (PKC), Rho-kinase and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) (Shim et al., 2012).
The inhibitory actin-binding protein caldesmon attenuates the interaction of actin and myosin, leading to reduced vasoconstriction (Kim et al., 2008). Conversely, caldesmon phosphorylation reduces the caldesmon-induced inhibitory effect on the interaction between actin and myosin, which leads to enhanced contraction (Kim et al., 2008). Protein tyrosine in vascular smooth muscle induces both PKC phosphorylation mediated by phospholipase D (PLD) and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which produces contraction via caldesmon phosphorylation and myosin light chain phosphatase (MLCP) inhibition (Akata, 2007; Hughes and Wijetunge, 1998). In addition, phosphorylation of the phosphorylation- dependent inhibitory protein of myosin phosphatase (CPI-17) induced by Rho-kinase or PKC increases phosphorylation of the 20-kDa regulatory light chain of myosin (MLC20) via MLCP inhibition, contributing to calcium sensitization-mediated contraction (Akata, 2007). However, the pathways associated with caldesmon phosphorylation regulating actin availability or CPI-17 and MLC20 phosphorylation evoked by levobupivacaine, which contribute to levobupivacaine-induced contraction, remains unknown. Thus, the objective of this study was to examine these cellular signaling MEK inhibitor pathways associated with levobupivacaine-induced contraction in isolated endothelium-denuded rat aortas and aortic vascular smooth muscle cells, with a particular focus on the caldesmon phosphorylation-mediated pathways.
2. Materials and Methods
This experiment was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Gyeongsang National University. All experimental procedures were performed in agreement with the regulations stipulated by the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animal prepared by Gyeongsang National University. 2.1.Preparation of rat thoracic aortas and isometric tension measurements Isolated rat thoracic aortas were prepared for tension measurements as previously described (Ok et al., 2017). Male Sprague-Dawley rats (body weight: 250- 300 g, N = 47 rats) were anesthetized using 100% carbon dioxide supplied to small cages containing the rats. After the descending thoracic aorta was removed from the thoracic cavity, the perivascular connective tissue and fat were removed under a microscope. The aorta was then cut into small aortic rings of 2.5 mm in length and suspended in a Grass isometric transducer (FT-03, Grass Instrument Co., Quincy, MA, USA) with 3.0 g of resting tension in a 10-ml organ bath filled with Krebs solution maintained at 37°C. The resting tension at 3.0 g was maintained to reach equilibrium for 120 min. The Krebs solution was refreshed every 40 min.
A 25-gauge needle was used to remove the endothelium of the aorta. Two 25-gauge needles were inserted into the aortic lumen, and the aorta was then rolled down using the two 25-gauge needles as axes. To verify removal of the endothelium, phenylephrine (10-8 M) was added to the organ bath to produce vasoconstriction. Then, acetylcholine (10-5 M) was added to ascertain the magnitude of relaxation evoked by acetylcholine from phenylephrine (10-8 M)-induced contraction. In this experiment, we considered endothelial denudation to be represented by less than 15% relaxation evoked by acetylcholine from phenylephrine-induced contraction. Then, the isolated endothelium-denuded aortic rings relaxed by acetylcholine were washed several times with Krebs solution to restore the baseline resting tension. Then, the contraction evoked by the cumulative addition of levobupivacaine was evaluated in some endothelium-denuded rat aortas, with contraction induced by isotonic 60 mM KCl as a reference value. The aortic rings exhibiting 60 mM KCl-induced contraction were washed several times with fresh Krebs solution to restore the baseline resting tension. Subsequently, the following experimental protocols were performed using endothelium-denuded rat aorta samples pretreated with the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor NW-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME: 10-4 M). The L-NAME (10- 4 M)-pretreated endothelium-denuded rat aortas in this experiment were used because of two factors. First, the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine was attenuated in endothelium-intact aortas compared with endothelium-denuded aortas due to endothelial NO release (Baik et al., 2011). Second, the residual endothelium remaining after endothelial denudation could affect the magnitude of vasoconstriction evoked by levobupivacaine.
2.2. Experimental protocols
First, we investigated the cumulative levobupivacaine (10-6 to 3 根 10-4 M, N = 13, number of biological replicates = 5) dose-response curves in the isolated endothelium-denuded rat aortas. After the preexisting lowest concentration of levobupivacaine produced stable and sustained contraction for 6 min, the next highest concentration of levobupivacaine was added to the organ bath. Second, the effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor tyrphostin 23 (10-5 to 10-4 M, N = 7, number of biological replicates = 5) and genistein (10-5 to 10-4 M, N = 8, number of biological replicates = 5) on the sustained contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) in the isolated endothelium-denuded rat aortas were examined. After levobupivacaine (10-4 M) produced sustained and stable contraction, various concentrations (10-5 to 10-4 M) of tyrphostin 23 and genistein were added to the organ bath containing an isolated endothelium-denuded rat aorta showing levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced contraction. Then, the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)- induced contraction was assessed for 60 min in the presence or absence of tyrphostin 23 or genistein. Third, the effects of the PKC inhibitor GF109203X (3 根 10-6 to 3 根 10-5 M, N = 8, number of biological replicates = 5), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitor PD98059 (10-5 and 3 根 10-5 M, N = 8, number of biological replicates = 5), Rho-kinase inhibitorY-27632 (10-7 to 10-6 M, N = 8, number of biological replicate = 4), myosin light chain kinase inhibitor ML-7 HCl (3 10-6 to 3 10-5 M, N = 8, number of biological replicates = 5) and phospholipase D (PLD) inhibitor 1-butanol (0.1 to 0.3%, N = 9, number of biological replicates = 5) on the sustained contraction induced by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) in isolated endothelium-denuded rat aortas were examined. After levobupivacaine (10-4 M) produced sustained and stable contraction, various concentrations of each inhibitor were added to the organ bath containing an isolated endothelium-denuded rat aorta showing stable and sustained contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M). Then, the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)- evoked contraction was assessed for 60 min in the presence or absence of various inhibitors. In addition, the effects of the PLD inhibitor 1-butanol (0.05%) and its inactive congener 2-butanol (0.05%) on the sustained contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M, N = 10, number of biological replicates = 4) were compared. After levobupivacaine (10-4 M) produced stable and sustained contraction in an isolated endothelium-denuded rat aorta, 1-butanol or 2-butanol was added to the organ bath to examine the effect of 1-butanol and 2-butanol on the contraction induced by levobupivacaine (10-4 M).
2.3. Fura-2 loading and simultaneous measurements of tension and the intracellular calcium level ([Ca2+]i) [Ca2+]i was measured according to the method described by Oketal. (2014) using the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator fura-2. Muscle strips were exposed to the acethoxymethyl ester of fura-2 (fura-2/AM, 5 μM) in the presence of 0.02% cremophor EL for 5-6 h at room temperature. After fura-2 loading, the muscle strip was washed with PSS at 37°C for 20 min to remove uncleaved fura-2/AM and was held horizontally in a temperature-controlled, 7-ml organ bath. One end of the muscle strip was connected to a force-displacement transducer to monitor muscle contraction. The muscle strips was illuminated alternately (48 Hz) at two excitation wavelengths (340 and 380 nm). The intensity of 500-nm fluorescence (F340 and F380) was measured using a fluorimeter (CAF-100; Jasco, Tokyo, Japan). The ratio of F340 to F380 (F340/F380) was calculated as an indicator of [Ca2+]i. The absolute Ca2+ concentration was not calculated in this experiment because the dissociation constant of the fluorescence indicator for Ca2+ in cytosol may be different from that obtained in vitro. Therefore, the ratios obtained in resting and 60-mM KCl-stimulated muscle were taken as 0 and 100%, respectively. Isometric contractions and the ratios of F340/F380 were recorded with a powerLab/400 using the chart program (MLT050, AD Instruments, Colorado Springs, CO, USA). Muscle strips were placed under an initial 3.0-g resting tension. All strips derived from the same animal were used in a different experimental protocol. Simultaneous [Ca2+]i-tension curves induced by the cumulative addition of levobupivacaine (10-6 to 3 x 10-4 M) were generated in the absence or presence of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein (3 x 10-5 M and 10-4 M, N = 5, number of biological replicates = 5). Genistein was added to the organ bath 10 min before the cumulative application of levobupivacaine and was maintained until the end of the measurement.
2.4. Cell culture
Vascular smooth muscle cells isolated from rat thoracic aortas by enzymatic digestion were cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM, HyClone, GE Healthcare, UT, USA) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (Gibco, Life Technologies, NY, USA), 100 U/ml of penicillin, and 100 µg/ml of streptomycin, as previously described, in our laboratory (Baik et al., 2016). Cells were grown at 37°C in 5% CO2 , and the medium was changed every 2 days until the cells reached confluence. Cells were propagated through trypsin treatment. Cells at passage 5~9 were seeded into 100-mm dishes at a density of 107 cells and incubated until reaching 70% confluence. Confluent cells were further incubated in serum-free medium for 15 h before the experiment.
2.5. Western blot
Western blot analysis was performed using the method described by Baik et al. (2016). Cells grown in 100-mm dishes were treated with the reagent compound (levobupivacaine and phorbol 12, 13-dibutyrate [PDBu]) alone or with various inhibitors plus the reagent compound and then washed twice with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline. For the immunoblot analysis, whole cells were lysed in RIPA lysis buffer (Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA, USA) to obtain total cell lysates. The cell lysates were centrifuged to remove debris at 18,472 g for 15 min at 4°C, and the resulting supernatants (30 µg of protein) were denatured by boiling for 5 min and then separated by 7~13.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The separated proteins were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes using Trans-Blot® SD Semi-Dry Transfer Cells (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). Following blocking with 5% bovine serum albumin (BioShop, Burlington, Canada) at room temperature for 1 h, the membranes were incubated with the primary antibodies anti-PKC (1:1,000), anti- phospho-PKC (1:1,000), anti-caldesmon (1:10,000), anti-phospho-caldesmon(1:1,000), anti-tyrosine (1:1,500), anti-ERK (1:1,000), anti-phospho-ERK (1:1,000), anti-CPI-17 (1:1,000), anti-phospho-CPI-17 (1:1,000), anti-MLC20 (1:1,000), anti- phospho-MLC20 (1:1,000) and anti- β-actin (1:10,000) at 4°C overnight. After washing with Tris-buffered saline with Tween-20 (TBST), the membranes were incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit or anti-mouse IgG diluted 1:5,000 in TBST containing 5% w/v skim milk for 1 h at room temperature. Immune complexes were detected with SuperSignal® West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). The density values of the bands were determined using Image Lab software v.3.0 (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA, USA).
2.6.Gene silencing with small interfering RNA (siRNA)
Gene silencing experiments were performed using ERK siRNAs, as described by Yu et al. (2015). Vascular smooth muscle cells were transfected with 50-nM ERK siRNA or control siRNA (Bioneer, Daejeon, Korea) using Lipofectamine RNAiMAX (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) in a medium containing 10% serum. The effect of gene silencing was assessed using Western blot analysis.
2.7. Reagents
All drugs and chemicals were of the highest purity and commercially available. Levobupivacaine was obtained from Abbott Korea (Seoul, Korea). Tyrphostin 23, 1- butanol, 2-butanol, genistein, GF109203X, PDBu, PD98059, SP600125, ML-7 HCl, quinacrine, indomethacin, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, phenylephrine, acetylcholine and L-NAME were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Y-27632 was supplied by Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA, USA). Fluconazole was obtained from Pfizer Global Manufacturing (Amboise, France). Fura-2/AM was obtained from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR, USA). Anti-caldesmon antibody was obtained from Abcam (Cambridge Science Park, Cambridge, England). Anti-phospho-caldesmon (at Ser789) antibody was obtained from Millipore (Billerica, MA, USA) and Abcam. Anti- phospho-tyrosine, anti-PKC, anti-phospho-PKC (pan), anti-ERK and anti-phospho- ERK (at Thr202/Tyr204) antibodies were obtained from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA, USA). Anti-CPI-17 and anti-phospho-CPI-17 (at Thr38) antibodies were obtained from Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). Anti-MLC20 and anti- phospho-MLC20 (at Ser19) antibodies were obtained from Cell Signaling Technology. Genistein, tyrphostin 23, ML-7 HCl, PD98059, PDBu, indomethacin and nordihydroguaiaretic acid were dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (final organ bath concentration: 0.3%), and other drugs were dissolved in distilled water.
2.8. Statistical analysis
All the data are shown as the mean ± S.D.. The vasoconstriction and [Ca2+]i induced by the cumulative addition of levobupivacaine are expressed as the percentages of isotonic 60-mM KCl-induced contraction and [Ca2+]i, respectively. The vasoconstriction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) after the addition of various inhibitors is expressed as the percentage of absolute levobupivacaine (10-4 M)- induced contraction before the addition of inhibitors. The vasoconstriction induced by the cumulative addition of levobupivacaine was analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc test. The effects of various inhibitors on the contraction and [Ca2+]i induced by levobupivacaine were analyzed using two-way repeated measures ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc test. The slopes of the calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine in the presence or absence of genistein were calculated using linear regression. The effect of genistein on the slopes of the calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. The effects of several inhibitors and ERK siRNA on the phosphorylation of caldesmon, ERK, PKC and protein tyrosine evoked by levobupivacaine or PDBu were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc test. The comparison regarding the effect of 1-butanol and 2-butanol on levobupivacaine- induced contraction was performed lncRNA-mediated feedforward loop using an unpaired Student’s t-test. The effect of various inhibitors on the MLC20 and CPI-17 phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc test. A P value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
3.Results
Levobupivacaine (10-5 to 3 根 10-4 M) caused vasoconstriction (Fig. 1; P < 0.001 versus control), and the highest concentration of levobupivacaine (3 根 10-4 M) produced attenuated vasoconstriction (Fig. 1; P < 0.001 versus 10-4 M levobupivacaine). Tyrosine kinase inhibitors tyrphostin 23 (3 根 10-5 and 10-4 M) and genistein (3 根 10-5 and 10-4 M) attenuated the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced contraction (Fig. 2A and B; P < 0.001 versus time-matched control at 20 to 60 min). The highest concentration (10-4 M) of tyrphostin 23 and genistein nearly abolished the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 2A and B; P < 0.001 versus time-matched control). The PKC inhibitor GF109203X (3 根 10-6 to 3 根 10-5 M) attenuated the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced contraction (Fig. 3A; P < 0.01 versus time-matched control at 10 to 60 min). The ERK inhibitor PD98059 (10-5 and 3 根 10-5 M) and Rho-kinase inhibitorY-27632 (10-7 to 10-6 M) inhibited the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 3B and C; P < 0.001 versus time-matched control at 20 to 60 min). The myosin light chain kinase inhibitor ML-7 HCl (3 根 10-6 to 3 根 10-5 M) attenuated the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 3D; P < 0.05 versus time-matched control at 20 to 60 min).
The PLD inhibitor 1-butanol (0.1 to 0.3%) attenuated the vasoconstriction evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 4A; P < 0.001 versus time-matched control at 10 to 60 min). The magnitude of 1-butanol (0.05%)-mediated inhibition of levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced contraction was higher than that of inactive congener 2-butanol (0.05%)-mediated inhibition (Fig. 4B; P < 0.01 versus 0.05% 2-butanol). Cumulative application of levobupivacaine (10-6 M to 3 x 10-4 M) caused contraction with a slightly increasing F340/F380 ratio in a concentration-dependent manner (Fig. 5A). Increased [Ca2+]i and contractions induced by levobupivacaine were observed initially at 10-5 M, and a maximal effect was observed at 10-4 M (Fig. 5A). At a higher concentration of 3 x 10-4 M, contraction was moderately reduced (Fig. 5A). Pretreatment with 3 x 10-5 M and 10-4 M genistein decreased 10-4 M levobupivacaine-induced contraction from 68.8 9.6% to 48.8 6.3% and 11.4 2.2, with slight inhibition of the [Ca2+]i from 13.72 3.16% to 10.9 1.94% and 4.9 0.74%, respectively (Fig. 5B, 6Aand B). Genistein (3 x 10-5 M) inhibited levobupivacaine (10-5 to 10-4 M)-induced contraction (P < 0.001 versus control) and only levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced [Ca2+]i (P < 0.05 versus control; Fig. 6A and B). A high concentration of genistein (10-4 M) inhibited contraction and [Ca2+]i induced by levobupivacaine (10-5 to 10-4 M) (P < 0.001 versus control; Fig. 6Aand B).
Furthermore, genistein (10-4 M) decreased the slopes of calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine (P < 0.001 versus control; Fig. 6C; control: 5.47 ± 0.47 versus 10-4 M genistein: 2.43 ± 0.38). Levobupivacaine (10-4 M) induced caldesmon phosphorylation in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle (Fig. 7A; P < 0.001 versus control). PD98059 (3 根 10-5 M) attenuated the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced caldesmon phosphorylation (Fig. 7A; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone). In addition, the PKC inhibitor GF109203X (3 根 10-5 M) and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein (10-4 M) inhibited the caldesmon phosphorylation evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 7B; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone). Furthermore, levobupivacaine (10-4 M) induced caldesmon phosphorylation of rat aortic vascular smooth cells transfected with control siRNA (P < 0.01 versus control siRNA; Fig. 7C). However, levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced caldesmon phosphorylation was lower in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells transfected with ERK siRNAthan that in cells transfected with control siRNA (P < 0.001; Fig. 7C). Total ERK expression was decreased in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells transfected with ERK siRNA compared with that in cells transfected with controlsiRNA (Fig. 7C). Genistein (10-4 M) inhibited the ERK phosphorylation evoked by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (Fig. 8A; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone). Genistein (10-4 M)inhibited the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (Fig. 8B; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone). GF109203X (10-5 M) attenuated the levobupivacaine (10-4 M)-induced PKC phosphorylation (Fig. 9A; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone). GF109203X (3 根 10-5 M) attenuated the phosphorylation of ERK and caldesmon evoked by the PKC stimulant PDBu (10-6 M) (Fig. 9B and C; P < 0.001 versus PDBu alone). GF109203X (10-5 M), Y-27632 (10-6 M), ML-7 HCl (10-5 M) and PD98059 (3 根 10-5 M) attenuated the phosphorylation of MLC20 induced by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (Fig. 10A; P < 0.01 versus levobupivacaine alone). GF109203X (10-5 M), Y-27632 (10-5 M), SP600125 (10-5 M), quinacrine (4 根 10-5 M) and combined treatment with indomethacin (10-5 M), nordihydroguaiaretic acid (10-5 M) and fluconazole (10-5 M) attenuated the CPI-17 phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) (Fig. 10B; P < 0.001 versus levobupivacaine alone).
4. Discussion
This is the first study to suggest that levobupivacaine-induced contraction involves caldesmon phosphorylation mediated by ERK, which is activated by tyrosine kinase or PKC. The major findings of this in vitro study are as follows: 1) Genistein, tyrphostin 23, GF109203X, PD98059 and ML-7 HCl attenuated the contraction induced by levobupivacaine; 2) Genistein caused a right downward shift of the calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine; 3) PD98059, ERK siRNA, GF109203X and genistein inhibited levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation; 4) Genistein attenuated the phosphorylation of ERK and protein tyrosine induced by levobupivacaine; and 5) GF109203X, Y-27632, ML-7 HCl, PD98059 and SP600125 attenuated the phosphorylation of MLC20 or CPI-17 induced by levobupivacaine. Consistent with previous reports that lower doses of aminoamide local anesthetics produce vasoconstriction and that higher doses of aminoamide local anesthetics produce attenuated vasoconstriction (Lee et al., 2013; Ok et al., 2013; Ok etal., 2014; Shimetal., 2012), lower doses of levobupivacaine (10-5 to 10-4 M) produced vasoconstriction in the current study, whereas higher doses of levobupivacaine (3 根 10-4 M) produced attenuated vasoconstriction. Tyrosine kinase induces caldesmon phosphorylation through MAPK, contributing to enhanced contraction (Akata, 2007). Contraction induced by the alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist dexmedetomidine involves caldesmon phosphorylation induced by c-Jun NH2- terminal kinase (JNK) in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle (Baik et al., 2014).
The ERK-induced phosphorylation of caldesmon, which is an inhibitory actin-binding protein and inhibits actin-myosin interaction, reverses the inhibitory effect of myosin activation and causes uterine contraction observed in late pregnancy and contraction of the carotid artery (Adam et al., 1995; Morgan, 2014). Caldesmon phosphorylation induced by the protein tyrosine-mediated phosphorylation of ERK contributes to vasospasm after cerebral subarachnoid hemorrhage (Suzuki et al., 2011). Tyrphostin 23 and genistein attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction, suggesting that levobupivacaine-induced contraction is mediated by tyrosine kinase. Consistent with this result, genistein attenuated the tyrosine phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine (Fig. 8B). In addition, genistein attenuated the caldesmon and ERK phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine (Figs. 7B and 8A). As the ERK inhibitor PD98059 attenuated levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation (Fig. 7A), these results suggest that levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation seems to be mediated by pathways with tyrosine kinase and ERK as upstream signaling molecules (Fig. 11). The PKC stimulant PDBu induced phosphorylation of ERK and caldesmon, which was inhibited by the PKC inhibitor GF109203X (Fig. 9B and C). In addition, both GF109203X attenuated levobupivacaine-induced PKC phosphorylation (Fig. 9A) and levobupivacaine induced ERK phosphorylation (Fig. 8A).
Considering the above observations, another pathway contributing to caldesmon phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine involves PKC and ERK (Fig. 11). Consistent with both pathways involving either tyrosine kinase-ERK or PKC- ERK as upstream signaling molecules involved in caldesmon phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine, along with the involvement of PKC and ERK in the levobupivacaine-induced contraction observed in a previous study, genistein, tyrphostin 23, GF109203X and PD98059 attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction (Figs. 2A and B, 3A and B) (Shim et al., 2012). Moreover, as ERK siRNA attenuated levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation and total ERK expression (Fig. 7C), levobupivacaine-induced caldesmon phosphorylation would be mediated by ERK activated by PKC or tyrosine kinase. Tyrosine kinase additionally induces MAPK phosphorylation via PLD-mediated PKC activation, which leads to caldesmon phosphorylation and enhanced calcium sensitization (Akata, 2007; Hughes and Wijetunge, 1998; Liu and Khalil, 2018). Calcium sensitization partially contributes to levobupivacaine-induced contraction (Shim et al., 2012). Pretreatment with genistein caused a right downward shift of the calcium-tension curves induced by levobupivacaine (Fig. 6C), suggesting that tyrosine kinase is involved in calcium sensitization-mediated contraction induced by levobupivacaine. Together with the current results, we surmise that the pathway involving tyrosine kinase-ERK- caldesmon may mediate levobupivacaine-induced calcium sensitization.
The PLD inhibitor 1-butanol attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction (Fig. 4A). 2- Butanol, which is an inactive congener of 1-butanol, also attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction (Fig. 4B). However, because the PLD inhibitor 1-butanol has nonspecific action, which is irrelevant to the inhibition of PLD, a comparison regarding the effect of 1-butanol and its inactive congener 2-butanol on the contraction induced by levobupivacaine (10-4 M) was performed (Vitale, 2010). As 1-butanol (0.05%) attenuated levobupivacaine-induced contraction more than the inactive congener of 1-butanol, 2-butanol (0.05%) (Fig. 4B), levobupivacaine-induced contraction seems to be mediated by a pathway involving PLD (Fig. 11). Further study regarding the detailed cellular signaling pathways involving PLD and PKC contributing to the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine is needed. PKC and Rho-kinase inhibit MLCP via the phosphorylation of CPI-17, which produces calcium sensitization-mediated contraction via the decreased dephosphorylation of MLC20 (Akata, 2007; Fukata et al., 2001). Considering previous reports and the current results,a lower dose of levobupivacaine (10-4 M) appears to produce calcium sensitization induced by CPI-17 phosphorylation, which was inhibited by GF109203X, Y-27632 and SP600125 (Fig. 10B) (Cho et al, 2016; Shim et al., 2012). These results suggest that levobupivacaine-induced CPI-17 phosphorylation is mediated by pathways involving PKC, Rho-kinase and JNK. In agreement with the involvement of PKC and Rho-kinase in levobupivacaine-induced CPI-17 phosphorylation and previous reports, GF109203X and Y-27632 inhibited levobupivacaine-induced contraction (Fig. 3A and C) (Shim et al., 2012).
In addition, arachidonic acid produced by the phospholipase A2-mediated hydrolysis of arachidonyl phospholipid produces calcium sensitization-mediated contraction via Rho-kinase activation (Somlyo and Somlyo, 2000). Contraction induced by levobupivacaine is mediated mainly by the lipoxygenase pathway and partially by the cyclooxygenase pathway (Choi et al., 2010). Considering previous reports, as the phospholipase A2 inhibitor quinacrine or combined treatment with the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin, the lipoxygenase inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid and the epoxygenase inhibitor fluconazole inhibited levobupivacaine-induced CPI-17 phosphorylation (Fig. 10B), the calcium sensitization evoked by levobupivacaine-induced CPI-17 phosphorylation seems to be partially mediated by pathways involving phospholipase A2 , lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase (Choi et al., 2010; Shim et al., 2012; Somlyo and Somlyo, 2000). Further study regarding the detailed upstream and downstream signaling pathways associated with lipoxygenase-mediated calcium sensitization is needed. CPI-17 phosphorylation contributing to this calcium sensitization-mediated contraction enhances MLC20 phosphorylation via the MLCP inhibition and enhances contraction (Akata, 2007; Somlyo and Somlyo, 2000). In the current study, GF109203X, Y- 27632 and SP600125 attenuated levobupivacaine-induced CPI-17 phosphorylation (Fig. 10B). Considering the above observation, as GF109203X, Y-27632 and PD98059 attenuated the MLC20 phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine, the enhanced MLC20 phosphorylation evoked by levobupivacaine via CPP-17 phosphorylation-mediated MLCP inhibition is mediated by PKC and Rho-kinase.
As the MLCK inhibitor ML-7 HCl attenuated the contraction (Fig. 2D) and MLC20 phosphorylation induced by levobupivacaine (Fig. 10A), levobupivacaine-induced MLC20 phosphorylation and contraction seem to be mediated by activation of MLCK via calcium influx (Fig. 11) (Akata, 2007; Baik et al., 2011). Intradermal injection of levobupivacaine (4.8 根 10-4 M) produces maximal vasoconstriction in an in vivo setting (Aps and Reynolds, 1978). However, 3 根 10-4 M levobupivacaine in the current study produced vasodilation in isolated endothelium- denuded rat aortas. The different results between previous study and the current study may be due to the following factors. First, since 95% of levobupivacaine is protein-bound and may be diluted with interstitial fluid after local injection, the concentration of free levobupivacaine at the tissue site may be less than 2.4 根 10-5 M, which may be within the concentration range required to produce the nearly maximal vasoconstriction observed in the current study (Aps and Reynolds, 1978; Casati and Putzu, 2005). Second, the vessels studied (aorta versus immunocorrecting therapy dermal vessels), species used (rat versus human) and experimental conditions (in vitro versus in vivo) differed between studies (Aps and Reynolds, 1978). Because of both the protein binding of levobupivacaine and the dilution of levobupivacaine by extracellular fluid after local injection, the 0.031% levobupivacaine administered by intradermal injection in a previous study may result in less than approximately 5.37 根 10-5 M levobupivacaine in an in vivo setting, which may produce a lower magnitude of vasoconstriction induced by the corresponding levobupivacaine concentration observed in the current in vitro study (Casati and Putzu, 2005; Newton et al., 2005).
The commercially available concentration of levobupivacaine is 0.25 to 0.75%, which corresponds to approximately 8.7 根 10-3 to 2.6 根 10-3 M, respectively. The peak concentration of plasma levobupivacaine after a scalp block is 5.4 根 10-6 M (Costello et al., 2005). Considering previous reports, protein binding and dilution by extracellular fluid, the concentration of levobupivacaine expected in the clinical, in vivo setting may be less than 0.27 根 10-6 to 1.3 根 10-4 M, which approximately corresponds to the concentration range of levobupivacaine used in the current study (Costello et al.,2005). The vasoconstriction evoked by levobupivacaine observed in a previous in vivo studies seems to be associated with the intrinsic vasoconstriction produced by levobupivacaine observed in the current study (Kopacz et al., 2001; Newton et al., 2000; Newton et al., 2005). Taken together, these results suggest that the contraction evoked by levobupivacaine involves caldesmon phosphorylation mediated by tyrosine kinase- ERK or PKC-ERK (Fig. 11). In addition, the phosphorylation of CPI-17 and MLC20 evoked by levobupivacaine is mediated by a pathway involving PKC, Rho-kinase and JNK and PKC, Rho-kinase and ERK, respectively (Fig. 11).
