Although the researchers favor a linguistic identification with

Arawak, people of several other important language families build the round villages, too, and the current inhabitants in fact are Carib-speakers who explicitly trace descent from the ancient people who occupied their sites. The date of the prehistoric site system is late prehistoric, between about 1450 and 1000 years cal AD. Both the ancient and modern people practiced horticulture and agroforestry, and their sites have patches of anthropic black soil and extant anthropic forests, which constitute lasting human impacts on the habitat (see Sections ‘Anthropic black soils’ and ‘Anthropic forests’). These features, though less extensive than those on the major floodplains of the Amazon, nonetheless show that such impacts of occupation took place away from the main floodplains, contrary to environmental determinist theory. GW3965 Also recognized recently, the so-called geoglyphs are quite different from the other monuments. Geoglyphs so far have been found primarily in a 250 km long area of Brazil, Bolivia, and Colombia in terra firme habitat, at both small and large rivers ( Parssinen et al., 2003, Schaan et al., 2007 and Schaan et al., 2012). Like the Ecuadorian Formative mounds, geoglyphs are artificial constructions on dry, non-flooded land, not on wetlands. Hundreds have

been found, revealed by recent deforestation for ranching. If currently forested areas nearby also have such structures, researchers suggest that a total of ten times that number. In principle, the geoglyphs could be detected within intact forest, as topographic anomalies in geophysical or remote GS-7340 sensing surveys, but prospection is still in a preliminary stage. Unlike habitation mounds, these reflect a primarily ritual, socio-technic, and esthetic character. The name refers to their geometric iconography. The large earth constructions are in the shape of quadrangles or circles or combinations of those, surrounded by ditches and walls (Fig. 11). The circles are between 100 and 300 m across, the ditches are at least 10 m wide and 1–3 m deep,

with walls from 50 cm to a meter high. Some geoglyphs have ramps, raised roads, or paths. Because no topographic instrument maps of them have been published, their three-dimensional shapes are unclear. In view of their size from one mafosfamide to several hectares, their rare, non-utilitarian pottery, and their ramps, geoglyphs are interpreted as places for religious or political meetings, Some have modest amounts of domestic materials as well, though they do not seem primarily refuse mounds or defensive works. Based on limited dating, most appear to be about 1200–1000 years old, but new dates take some back to the beginning of the common era. Although it had been speculated that the land might have been deforested at the time, the stable carbon isotope values for radiocarbon dated charcoal (ca. −28 per mil delta 13C) fits a closed canopy forest.

In the case of Polynesia, the Caribbean, and the Channel Islands, human transformation of island ecosystems began at initial colonization and often accelerated

through time as populations grew and human activities intensified. The maritime agriculturalists that occupied Polynesia and the Caribbean often had a similar pattern of occupation with early records documenting significant anthropogenic burning and landscape clearance, a new suite of intentionally and accidentally introduced plants and animals that were part of transported landscapes, followed by soil erosion and later highly Selleckchem ON 1910 managed anthropogenic landscapes. The pattern identified in these two island regions is similar to the records of islands in the North Atlantic occupied by Neolithic and Viking Age peoples (McGovern et al., 2007 and Perdikaris and McGovern, 2008) and Mediterranean islands (Patton, 1996; Zeder, 2009). Island archeology also reveals important differences in the scale and magnitude

of human environmental impacts. On the Channel Islands and some Caribbean islands, initial human occupations were by maritime hunter-gatherers. The environmental impacts of these early peoples Small molecule library molecular weight is often not as rapid, easy to discern, or as clear as those of pastoralists or agriculturalists. Without domesticated plants and animals (except dogs) or the need to clear land for horticulture, for example, early records of human occupation from California’s Channel Islands generally lack the initial burning, landscape clearing, and soil erosion typical of many Polynesian sequences. Anthropogenic burning is evident on the Channel Islands in the past, but these events are not easy to differentiate from natural fires (Anderson et al., 2010b). Still hunter-gatherers transformed their island ecosystems in major ways, including the translocation of animals, direct and indirect influences on the extinction of mammals and birds, fire and burning, and significant impacts on marine resources. On the Channel Islands, these include translocation of island deer mice, island foxes, and perhaps other organisms

(Rick, 2013), and strong influences on island marine ecosystems and organisms (Erlandson and Rick, 2010). The early record of some Caribbean islands also documents extinction of island sloths and other vertebrates, and translocation of plant resources by hunter-gatherer heptaminol populations (Newsom and Wing, 2004:128; Steadman et al., 2005). These data suggest that there was no single, overarching human influence or impact on island ecosystems in the past—the patterns and processes on islands were complex and related to the subsistence strategies of people occupying the island (i.e., agriculturalists, hunter-gatherers), the population densities of those people, their sociocultural systems and technologies, differences in island physical characteristics (size, age, nutrients, etc.), and the collective decisions made by individual societies.

, 1989, Cetinić et al., 2006 and Burić et al., 2007). Nevertheless, freshwater phytoplankton species such as Pediastrum spp. were occasionally observed in the samples, probably due to local freshwater input from small rivers and springs, which is greater mainly in the winter and spring. The dominance of the diatom S. marinoi in the spring and winter resulted in microphytoplankton dominance in total carbon biomass above the halocline. Skeletonema blooms were a distinct feature of the Bay, clearly distinguishing its

phytoplankton assemblages from those in adjacent waters. The species is reported to be one of the dominant species in the nutrient-richer areas ( Revelante and Gilmartin, 1976 and Viličić et al., 2009), where it usually exhibits

marked seasonal behaviour, forming blooms click here above the pycnocline in the late winter ( Totti et al., 2005, Bernardi et al., 2006 and Pugnetti et al., 2008). It is also found in other riverine water-influenced and nutrient-rich environments ( Blanc et al., 1975, Thompson and Ho, 1981, Spies and Parsons, 1985 and Morozova and Orlova, 2005). In the waters surrounding the investigated Bay its presence is detected sporadically, but even then in very low abundances ( Socal et al., 1999 and Rubino et al., 2009). It has recently been discovered that different strains of S. marinoi can tolerate a wide range of salinity ( Saravanan and Godhe, 2010 and Balzano et

al., 2011), which is in accordance with our findings of the species’ selleck products greatest abundance in surface samples (salinity < 5). Thus, its mass development in the surface waters of Boka Kotorska Bay can be attributed to the competitive advantages of this species over the other marine phytoplankton found in the water column in this period in view of its ability to flourish in conditions of low salinity and lower temperatures. In addition, bloom-forming species like S. marinoi are characterized by inherently high growth rates and can efficiently exploit nutrients, the levels of Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase which are higher, especially in the layer above the halocline in the Bay ( Smayda 1998). The influence of the vertical salinity gradient in the phytoplankton distribution is also clearly perceptible in other phytoplankton groups. Cryptophytes and Dinobryon sp. correlated positively with nutrients and negatively with salinity, confirming their preference for the upper, nutrient-rich and less saline layer. The mixotrophic chrysophyte Dinobryon sp. ( McKenrie et al. 1995) and cryptophytes were found in high cell concentrations in the surface layer during spring. Their development was probably favoured by the higher inorganic nutrient concentrations as well by the release of organic matter by diatoms at this stage of the Skeletonema marinoi bloom.

bassiana + spinosad, T8: M. brunneum + azadirachtin, T9: M. brunneum + spinosad) on the adjusted

mortality of adult sweetpotato weevils C. formicarius. To estimate degree of damage caused by C. formicarius in different treatments, damage reduction rates (DRR) were established. First, PD 332991 holes/tuber was used to indicate the damage degree (DD). Then, the DRR of C. formicarius was calculated as the following equation: DRR=DDtreatment-DDcontrol1-DDcontrolwhere DDtreatment was the holes/tuber caused by C. formicarius in each treatment while DDtreatment was the holes/tuber caused by C. formicarius in the control treatment (water spray). Repeated measures ANOVA was also used to examine the effects of different treatments on DRR. In addition, the numbers of cadavers in each plot, evaluated by counting in randomly selected 1 m2 quadrats SP600125 solubility dmso in each plot, were examined to detect differences at different sampling dates with repeated measures ANOVA. Multiple Comparison method (LSD) was then used to test the differences in yield of different treatments. All analyses were conducted using SAS version 9.3 (SAS Institute, 2011). Adult mortality tests (Fig. 1, presented as adjusted percentage mortality) found that all

treatments caused significant adult mortality compared to the water control treatment (F9,441 = 10.37, P = 0.001; Fig. 1). Spinosad, B. bassiana + spinosad, and M. brunneum + spinosad each caused 100% mortality at 48 h post-treatment. Azadirachtin, B. bassiana + M. brunneum, B. bassiana + azadirachtin, and M. brunneum + azadirachtin caused 100% mortality but not until 72–144 h after the treatment. Treatments with either M. brunneum or B. bassiana alone required 168–192 h post-treatment to reach 100% mortality. All the biorational and low risk chemical treatments significantly (both Yigo and Inarajan sites; see Fig. MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit 2; Table 2) reduced the level of tuber damage by C. formicarius. However, the treatment with B. bassiana + M. brunneum

was significantly superior (Yigo, F8,153 = 8.62, P = 0.001; Inarajan, F8,153 = 15.62, P = 0.001) to all other treatments as it eliminated all damage to sweet potato tubers, something no other treatment achieved. The treatment with B. bassiana + M. brunneum produced an average of 42.7 cadavers/m2 compared to 0.0 adult cadavers/m2 in the control plots. Plots treated with B. bassiana or M. brunneum, either alone or in combination, produced an average of 0.7–16.7 cadavers/m2, which was significantly different (Yigo, F4,85 = 15.07, P = 0.001; Inarajan, F4,85 = 9.89, P = 0.001; Fig. 3) from B. bassiana + M. brunneum. All treatments with low-risk insecticides had significantly higher yields than the control treatments (Yigo, F9,20 = 217.30, P = 0.001; Inarajan, F9,20 = 535.56, P = 0.001; Fig. 4). However, the treatment with B. bassiana + M. brunneum was significantly superior (Yigo, F4,10 = 45.46, P = 0.001; Inarajan, F4,10 = 164.26, P = 0.001) to B. bassiana + azadirachtin, B. bassiana + spinosad, M.

In brief, data from 10,000 events (intact cells) were acquired and the mean relative fluorescence intensity was determined Inhibitor Library after exclusion of debris events from the data set. All flow cytometric acquisitions and analyses

were performed using Flow Jo software 7.6.3 (Treestar, Ashland, OR). Flow cytometry data were analyzed and plotted by density as a dot plot which shows the relative FL1 fluorescence on the x-axis and the relative FL3 fluorescence on the y-axis. The quadrants to determinate the negative and positive area were placed on unstained samples. The number of cells in each quadrant was computed and the proportion of cells stained with PI, GFAP and NeuN were expressed as percentage of PI uptake. The protein concentration was determined by the method Epacadostat of Lowry et al. (1951) using serum bovine albumin as the standard. Data were analyzed statistically by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the Tukey–Kramer multiple comparison test when the F-test was significant. All analyses were performed using the SPSS software program on an IBM-PC compatible computer. We have previously described that a single administration of (PhTe)2 (0.3 μmol/kg body weight) caused

hyperphosphorylation of IF proteins from cortical slices of rats six days after injection (Heimfarth et al., 2008). On the basis on these results, in the present report we attempted to analyze the in vivo effects of (PhTe)2 on other cerebral structure. Therefore, slices from striatum of rats injected with 0.3 μmol (PhTe)2/kg body weight were incubated with 32P-orthophosphate and the phosphorylation pattern of astrocyte (GFAP and vimentin) as well as neuron IF proteins (NF-L, NF-M and NF-H) were evaluated 6 days post-exposure. As depicted in Fig. 1A, we found hyperphosphorylation of all the striatal IF proteins studied. Fig. 1B shows a representative experiment. To examine

whether the in vivo treatment with (PhTe)2 affected second messenger-independent and -dependent protein kinases we analyzed the involvement of MAPKs, PKA and PKCaMII respectively Casein kinase 1 in the actions of the neurotoxicant. Results showed that the MAPK signaling is activated in striatal slices, as demonstrated by increased immunoreactivity observed for phosphoErk ( Fig. 2A), phosphop38MAPK ( Fig. 2B) and phosphoJNK ( Fig. 2C), determined by Western blot analysis with specific monoclonal antibodies. Fig. 2D shows representative blots of total and phospho forms of the kinases studied. The effect (PhTe)2 on PKA and PKCaMII activities are depicted in Fig. 3A. Results show an increased striatal PKAcα immunoreactivity detected by Western blot assay, while PKCaMII immunoreactivity was down-regulated in this structure. Representative blot corroborate these findings. In an attempt to identify the phosphorylating sites targeted by the protein kinases PKCaMII, PKA and MAPK in the striatum, we assayed NF-LSer57 and NF-LSer55 on NF-L head domain as well as KSP repeats on NF-M/NF-H tail domain, respectively.

e. around 10 μs and lower. Overcoming these limitations requires a dedicated slow-motional theory, as for instance demonstrated for the refocused transverse relaxation rate R2 in liquid crystals [11]. Comparable treatments applicable to solid

proteins are to the best of our knowledge as BYL719 molecular weight yet unavailable. The relaxation rate R1ρ is the observable most suitable for studying slow conformational motions. The site-resolved measurements of R1ρ has previously been applied to the study of slow protein dynamics [12], [13], [14] and [15], but its quantitative interpretation has mostly relied on its interpolation between R2 and the longitudinal relaxation rate R1 [13], [14] and [16]. Such an analysis neglects the explicit MAS frequency dependence of R1ρ (see below) and is strictly limited to the validity range of Redfield theory for all involved relaxation rates, i.e. it is not applicable in the slow-motion limit. In the recent work [15], the MAS frequency was taken into account only by means of numerical simulations, without analytical treatment. Thus, there is as yet no consensus

with regards to the quantitative evaluation of R1ρ and the relevance of interfering dipolar spin–spin contributions [17] and [18]. We advocate the use of spin dilution by deuteration [12] and [19], selleck products the alternative approach is the ultra-fast MAS PIK3C2G (>50 kHz) [14], [16] and [20]. Here, we present the data indicating that R1ρ rates in deuterated and back-exchanged proteins are free from the coherent contribution even at rather slow MAS, and demonstrate the feasibility of a recent analytical treatment of R1ρ in dependence of the rotation frequency [21] to estimate actual correlation times and amplitudes of motion. We focus on slow dynamics in deuterated and partially proton back-exchanged microcrystalline chicken alpha-spectrin SH3 domain [22], demonstrating that the

significant fraction of commonly undetected residues with broad signals in the 2D spectrum exhibits the most pronounced slow mobility. The Redfield theory based analytical expressions for R  1ρ for the general case of arbitrary spin-lock resonance offset and arbitrary spin-lock and MAS frequencies were derived in Ref. [21]. For the heteronuclear dipole–dipole relaxation mechanism, this result reads: equation(1) R1ρ(off)IS=cos2θρ·R1IS+sin2θρ·R1ρ(on)IS, equation(2) R1IS=KNH210JωN-ωH+3JωN+6JωN+ωH, equation(3) R1ρ(on)IS=KNH2202Jω1-2ωR+4Jω1-ωR+4Jω1+ωR+2Jω1+2ωR/3++JωN-ωH+3JωN+6JωH+6JωN+ωH,where KNH2 is the powder-averaged squared N–H dipolar coupling constant (for the N–H distance 1.02 Å it is equal to 5.

Our primary goal in the development of RCLASS is to extend the EC classification so that it also covers putative reactions that are not yet well characterized. High-throughput measurement techniques hint at the existence of considerable numbers of orphan metabolites, i.e., compounds that are known to be present in living organisms but whose synthetic/degradation pathways are unknown ( Kotera et al., 2008). In order to identify the enzyme proteins involved in these pathways, it is essential to characterize or classify the putative reaction equations that are often incomplete. In principle, the official EC numbers cannot

be used for this purpose because their assignment requires confirmed experimental evidence of enzyme activity and a complete selleckchem reaction equation. In order to describe the relationships between putative reactions and putative enzyme proteins (or genes), it is PDGFR inhibitor essential to develop an enzyme classification scheme that is applicable not only for the confirmed reactions with complete equations, but also for the putative reactions, even if the equations are incomplete. Finding possible enzyme reactions from metabolomic data naturally starts with a pair of compounds (which we refer to as a “reactant pair”)

corresponding to a reaction equation, not always a complete reaction equation (Kotera et al., 2004). Possible chemical transformation within the compounds can be obtained by comparing the

two chemical structures. Technically, chemical compounds are represented as graph structures, where the edges represent chemical bonds, and the nodes represent atoms attached with functional group information. In order to distinguish functional groups and microenvironments of atoms, five atom species (C, N, O, S and P) are classified into the 68 Farnesyltransferase KEGG atom types (Hattori et al., 2003) (such as “N1a” for an amino group in Figure 1). As a result of graph comparison, the matched subgraph corresponds to the conserved atom group under the enzymatic reaction, and the unmatched sub-graph of each compound corresponds to the eliminated or the added atom groups. The boundary area between the conserved and the non-conserved sub-graphs can be regarded as the reaction center on which the putative enzyme acts. In such a way, the RDM chemical transformation patterns are extracted from a reactant pair in the computational manner (Kotera et al., 2004 and Hattori and Kotera, 2011). The RDM pattern is represented with a string of the KEGG Atom Types, and describes a chemical bond that is generated or eliminated in a reaction. We defined the RCLASS entries that represent a set of chemical transformations found in a Substrate–product pair (reactant pair). Each RCLASS entry was given identification numbers (RC numbers). An RCLASS entry may consist of multiple RDM patterns when more than one chemical bond is generated or eliminated.

, 2011). The region of increased resolution in simulation M2M2-mid, for example, does not extend as far and does not demand as much refinement as in simulation M∞M∞-var, Fig. 3 and Fig. 5, but is sufficient to obtain comparable Froude numbers. The reduction in

the number of Veliparib mw vertices used in simulation M2M2-mid compared to simulation M∞M∞-var suggests that in the latter case more refinement has occurred than was necessary. Furthermore, with M2M2, the increase in resolution along the boundary is achieved without the need for spatial variation of the horizontal velocity weight, which, from the perspective of a model user, is clearly desirable. Again it is the ability of simulations with M2M2 to capture variations at a range

NVP-BEZ235 nmr of scales that facilitates the improved performance. The adaptive mesh simulations discussed above are guided by the metric, and the number of vertices in the mesh is essentially unconstrained (in practice a maximum number of vertices is set by the user, Section 3.3.4, and, here, the meshes produced with M∞M∞ and M2M2 do not reach this maximum, Fig. 6). Simulations that use different metrics (or even the same metric with different solution field weights) can have both a different average mesh resolution and a different distribution of mesh resolution. In order to separate the effects of these two factors, adaptive mesh simulations with a constrained number of mesh vertices are investigated. In these simulations, the number of mesh vertices is constrained by setting an upper and lower bound for the number of vertices to

2.0451×1042.0451×104, the same as the number of vertices in the coarsest fixed mesh, Table 2. The previously shown best performing M2M2 metric and, for comparison, the M∞M∞ metric are used with the solution field weights as in simulations M∞M∞-const, M2M2-coarse and M2M2-mid. The constrained simulations are denoted by an asterisk, M∞M∞-const∗, M2M2-coarse∗ and M2M2-mid∗, respectively. This set allows comparison between both different metrics and different solution field weights. Note, the constraint on the number of mesh vertices leads to a reduction in Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor the number of vertices for M∞M∞-const∗ and M2M2-mid∗ compared to M∞M∞-const and M2M2-mid and an increase for M2M2-coarse∗ compared to M2M2-coarse, Fig. 6. The adapted mesh is subject to two constraints: the solution field weights and the bounds on the number of vertices. The adaptive mesh procedure adopted first computes the metric according to the solution field weights, as for the case with the unconstrained number of vertices. The metric is then scaled, if necessary, to coarsen or refine so that the number of vertices lies above or below the supplied lower or upper bound. This produces a mesh that attempts to meet the solution field weight criteria whilst satisfying the vertex constraint.

When Pictilisib cost given as single modalities, axitinib or radiation showed marked inhibition of tumor growth, decreasing tumor cellularity and proliferative rate as assessed Ki-67 marker. Either treatment also caused degenerative changes in the tumor cells and infiltration by inflammatory cells. However, the combination of a high single RT dose with axitinib was more effective than either

single modality confirming potentiation of RT efficacy by axitinib. In long-term axitinib therapy after RT, we demonstrated a complete destruction of lung tumor nodules in the orthotopic lung model. Pre-clinical studies in subcutaneous prostate tumors demonstrated enhanced tumor response by combining axitinib and fractionated RT but these short term-studies of 2-3 weeks treatment documented tumor growth delays [20] and [21]. Normalization of vessel and blood flow did not seem to occur in these studies but they showed destruction of tumor vasculature. Other studies in different tumor models demonstrate a strong antigiogenic potential

of axitinib by pruning tumor vessels and inducing tumor cell death observed by reduction of Ki-67 staining in agreement with the effect observed in our lung model [17] and [18]. In NSCLC patients treated with radiotherapy, radiation pneumonitis is an interstitial pulmonary inflammation that develops in up to 30% of patients [41] and [42]. It is caused by damage to lung parenchyma, epithelial cells, Selleck PLX4032 vascular endothelial cells and stroma that involves induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines which recruit inflammatory immune cells in the lung tissue [43] and [44]. This acute early pneumonitis progresses to a chronic inflammation and culminates in the later stage of lung fibrosis which is due to excessive accumulation of collagen and other extracellular (ECM) components [31], [44] and [45]. These adverse events of radiotherapy affect patients’ breathing and their quality of life [41] and [42]. In the context of our current studies, there is concern that radiation-induced

injury to lung tissue could be aggravated by vascular damage caused by anti-angiogenic treatment. To address this issue, the architecture and vasculature of lung tissues were investigated in the pre-clinical NSCLC model. Leukotriene-A4 hydrolase Pneumonitis was quantified by measuring the thickness of alveolar septa [32]. In control tumor-bearing lungs, 60% thickened septa was observed and associated with inflammation and hemorrhages surrounding tumor nodules. This extensive pneumonitis can be attributed to the effect of the presence of large tumor nodules, at the late time points of 2-3 months and was also observed in other independent studies [32]. Lungs treated with either modality alone had both smaller tumor burden and less pneumonitis (45% thickened septa), suggesting a relation between tumor burden and pneumonitis.

It is known by its characteristic warning behaviour of drumming inside the nest when disturbed ( Overal, 1982 and O’Donnell et al., 1997); MK-1775 mouse the wasps being very aggressive in defense behaviour and therefore receiving common names such as “seven mile jep” or “guitarron” ( Andena et al., 2009). Synoeca specimens are usually medium-sized, with some species in black colours, such as S. cyanea ( Richards, 1978). The nests are found generally

in tree trunks of urban and rural areas and are usually on a broad inclined surface, attached to the tree trunk by a single sessile comb ( Wenzel, 1998). Until now, there have been no studies regarding the composition and pharmacological activity of S. cyanea venom. In the present study, the effects of S. cyanea ABT-199 supplier venom injection are described for the first time by evaluation of toxicity (LD50), haemolytic, hemorrhagic, and antibacterial activities, and on smooth muscle and oedema assays. Animals were contained in accordance

with the ethical guidelines of the Brazilian Society for Neuroscience and Behaviour, which follows the guidelines for animal care prepared by the Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council, U.S.A. Likewise, every effort was made to avoid unnecessary stress and pain to the experimental animals. The number of animals was kept to the minimum necessary to test the concept. Moreover, the collection of specimens of the wasps was authorized by the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation of Brazil (license number 21723-1, date of issue 27/10/2009). S. cyanea wasps were collected in Distrito Federal,

Brazil. The wasps’ nest was captured and immediately submitted to low temperature controlled by ice. The nest was stored at −20 °C for 5 h to euthanize the wasps, after which 208 venom sacs were carefully dissected from the wasps, macerated in a 1:1 (v:v) acetonitrile/water solution and centrifuged at 5000 g for 5 min at room temperature. The supernatant was collected, vacuum dried, weighed in a precision balance and stored at −20 °C until use. Males of Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus) of approximately 30 g were used to determine the lethality of S. cyanea whole venom. The venom was dissolved in 120 μL saline solution (0.9%) and injected by i.p. route. Five experimental groups (n = 5 and n = 4 for the 1200 μg/mice group) were tested with buy ZD1839 doses 200, 400, 800, 1200 and 1600 μg/30 g mouse. The control group (n = 5) was injected with saline solution. The lethality rate of animals was observed 48 h after inoculation of venom or saline. At the end of the experiment the surviving animals were euthanized with an overdose of sodium pentobarbital (about 75 mg/kg). S. cyanea wasp venom was analyzed for its ability to induce behavioural and physiological changes in mice. For this, all groups of mice that were used in the LD50 determination assay were observed during the first hour of the experiment.