In contrast, hemorrhage and edema induced by jararhagin were unaffected by deletion of any of the inflammatory mediators investigated, indicating that these effects occurs independent of these pro-inflammatory mediators. Besides its relevance in snakebite, the action of jararhagin Akt inhibitor was investigated in a number of different cell systems. In fibroblasts, it presented an agonist effect leading to cellular activities similar to those induced when fibrillar collagen triggers the α2β1 integrin receptor as the expression of MMP-1, MT1-MMT and α2β1 integrin (Zigrino et al., 2002). In epithelial cells, jararhagin inhibited cellular adhesion to the substrate,

but stimulated cellular migration and phosphorylation of FAK, inducing the rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton, increased of actin polymerization and formation of motility-associated cell processes (Costa and Santos, 2004). In neuroblastoma cells, jararhagin also stimulates spreading, actin dynamics, neurite outgrowth, and activation of Rac1 Selleckchem KU-60019 GTPase (Costa et al., 2008). In addition, studies have been carried out to investigate the ability of jararhagin to interfere on cancer cell functions. Treatment of Skmel-28 human melanoma cells altered morphology, viability and adhesion

to ECM components, resulting in a significant reduction of lung metastasis compared to controls (Corrêa et al., 2002). This toxin also up-regulated cell cycle and apoptosis-related genes in Skmel-28 cells (Klein et al., 2011) and was evoked as a putative model for an anti-cancer drug. Due to the importance of SVMPs in venom pathology, the neutralization of their biological effects is crucial for the efficacy of Isotretinoin antivenoms, the currently accepted treatment for snakebite. In this regard, commercial and experimental antivenoms are efficient in inhibiting venom-induced hemorrhagic activity (Lopes-Ferreira et al., 1992)

indicating the immunogenicity of hemorrhagic SVMPs. However, aiming the development of antibodies directed solely at specific medically-important toxins, jararhagin was used for immunization protocols to raise antibodies by hybridoma technology (Tanjoni et al., 2003a) or by DNA immunization (Harrison et al., 2000). Seven murine monoclonal antibodies raised against jararhagin have been isolated. They reacted preferentially with jararhagin-C and one monoclonal antibody (MAJar 3) inhibited jararhagin/collagen interactions and jararhagin-induced hemorrhagic activity (Tanjoni et al., 2003a). Specific antibodies were also raised by immunization of mice with the cDNA encoding for recombinant jararhagin-C using a Gene-Gun approach. The resulting antiserum partially inhibited the hemorrhage induced by whole B. jararaca venom ( Harrison et al., 2000). Jararhagin-specific antibodies showed a marked antigenic cross-reactivity with venoms from other snakes.